The Goose Stepping Redcoats - The History of the House of Brandenburg in Britain

[Georg von Frundsberg]

PREFACE​

I would begin by expressing my gratitude to everyone in this vibrant and knowledgeable community for encouraging and inspiring me to actualise this idea. As a long-time alternate history hobbyist, I have been reading forum discussions and stories for a few years. I always want to write my own timeline and have compiled a long list of ideas which I wish I would have the chance to share with you in the future.

British history has always been a common trope on this forum, with a great focus on the War of Roses, the Tudor Period, and the Victorian Era. What is often overlooked is the long 18th century which is intriguing in its own way. The influence of this period on the course of the 19th and 20th centuries cannot be understated since it was a pivotal period in the foundation of the British Empire. The Royal Navy gained primacy in the seven seas. Its victory over France in the Seven Years’ War not only hastened the conquest of large swathes of North America and India but also consolidated its position as the unrivalled global hegemon. Domestically, this era brought revolutionary changes to the political and economic lives. The parliamentary system stabilised and accumulated much power, effectively performing its function to check the monarch’s powers. An independent cabinet system also emerged, where ministers were no longer solely the monarch's right-hand men but became answerable to elected delegates. It was said that the power dynamic between the crown and the ruling class had reached a peaceful equilibrium following the violent bloodletting of the 17th century. The creation of financial institutions like the Bank of England represented early forms of capitalism which paved the way to the industrial revolution. A new educated and prosperous merchant class appeared in cities like London where its ports were connected to markets as far as India and China.

The geopolitics of the European Continent also shifted drastically over the course of the century. In sharp contrast to Britain, the inability of the French ruling class to embrace substantial political and economic reforms resulted in the downfall of the absolute monarchy in 1789. The revolutionary wars that came after consumed much of Europe for twenty years. In Germany, the internal balance of power was shattered as the preeminence of Austria in the Holy Roman Empire was challenged by a rising Prussia which had transformed into a centralised and efficient military machine. Prussian victories in 1742, 1745 and 1763 confirmed its status as a great power which eventually led to the German unification. Contrary, Austria’s surprising defeats marked the beginning of its long decline, cumulating in its complete expulsion from Germany altogether in 1866. Poland, the Netherlands, and Sweden, once well-respected powers in the 17th century, were knocked off the pedestal. On the other hand, Russia, once regarded as a half-Asian blackwater state on the fringes of civilised Europe, rose to become an Eastern giant through its aggressive conquests in Northeastern Europe and the Ukraine. Its menace could be felt as far as London and Paris. There were also visible changes in European societies. Enlightened philosophers and their ideals reshaped administration and their emphasis on reason laid the intellectual groundwork for common notions of liberty and democracy; The feudal political structure inherited from the Middle Ages was supplanted by a centralised bureaucracy which diminished the powers and privileges of the nobility; Advances in weaponry and tactics made it possible to field larger armies; And the ever-changing alliances, known as the ‘Stately Quadrille’, made politics unpredictable and thrilling.

In such an eventual century, there is no doubt countless points of divergence that could alter the course of history, whether it may be the outcome of a battle or the survival of a monarch. I hope to explore an alternate 18th century, but taking the road less travelled, rather than indulging in another timeline about a French victory in the Five Years’ War [1] or the American Rebellion [2]. Writing an alternate history story about Britain in the 18th century is a less popular choice, probably because it was less dramatic than, for example, Henry VIII and his wives, or the epic struggle between Yorkists and Lancastrians. Nevertheless, it was a significant period which serves as the premise of my timeline. I want to imagine an alternate Britain and Europe but with a different king, dynasty, and empire.

For me, it is best to describe history as a combination of overarching trends and individual contingencies. It was never a deterministic flow of a river or a teleological progress. Unexpected events and their unintended consequences have caught the attention of historians for centuries. Although the ‘great men’ narrative of history has fallen out of fashion in academia, it still holds a grain of truth as often decisions made by an individual at a decisive moment will leave a lasting impact. Reading history with a counterfactual lens offers a profound joy, for it unveils the notion that past events were not predetermined. Countless twists and turns, no matter how minor, had the potential to alter everything—a single drop of ink in a vast glass of water. This story is a prime example of this historiography, as it begins with the death of a young German prince in the Netherlands which kickstarted an unstoppable domino chain. The actors in London and Berlin will be closely examined and analysed, and the perspectives from Paris, Vienna and Saint Petersburg will also be discussed. In this intricate web of alliances and rivalries, leaders seldom acted in a vacuum, as their actions were responses to the wider political context they were in. My ultimate goal in this project is to explain how British diplomacy influenced Continental Europe and vice versa.

Although I have read quite a few academic journals and books to familiarise myself with the geopolitics of this era by the time I am writing this, my historical knowledge is still cursory at best, so your input is greatly appreciated. The beginning years of my timeline will mostly align with OTL but it will take a more drastic divergence once the pre-PoD generation passes away. Nevertheless, I will limit the butterfly effects to maintain some form of semblance with our world. I will try to balance historical consistency and creativity to make this timeline fun to read. You are welcome to provide suggestions to improve this timeline. I know some fellow writers on this forum have used the same premise before, but I hope to give the most detailed and realistic rendering.

As a side note, I used the name ‘Brandenburg’ rather than the more popular term ‘Hohenzollern’ for my timeline title since the former is a more fitting name for a British royal house. In OTL, the House of Hanover is originally called the Welfs in Germany but George I adopted the electoral name in 1715 when he ascended the British throne. As the Hohenzollern Kings of Prussia were the Electors of Brandenburg, I assume they would take up their electoral name too [3].

I would like to give my special thanks to @Earl Marshal for his “Pride Goes Before a Fall: A Revolutionary Greece Timeline” and @Gwrtheyrn Annwn for his “So Evident a Danger”. Your works are a great inspiration.

Anyway, it is time for me to start putting my ideas on paper, but before that, here is the list of academic journals and books I have relied on. I will update the list when I progress further.

Books

1. ‘The Hanoverians: The History of a Dynasty’ (2004), Jeremy Black, Continuum
2. ‘The Hapsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’ (1970) C A Macartney, Macmillan
3. ‘The Whig Supremacy 1714 - 1760’ (1949) Basil Williams, Oxford
4. ‘The Quest for Security 1715 - 1740’ (1963) Penfield Roberts, Harper

Academic Journals

1. ‘George I and Peter the Great after the Peace of Nystad’ (Apr 1911), J F Chance, The English Historical Review Vol 26
2. ‘Parliament and Foreign Policy in the Age of Stanhope and Walpole’ (Jan 1962), C G Gibbs, The English Historical Review Vol 77
3. ‘Hanover and British Foreign Policy’ 1714-60 (Apr 2005) Jeremy Black, The English Historical Review Vol 120
4. ‘Britain's Foreign Alliances in the Eighteenth Century’ (1988), Jeremy Black, Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies Vol 20
5. ‘Parliament and Foreign Policy 1689-1714’ (Oct 1953), M A Thompson, History Vol 38
6. ‘British Neutrality in the War of the Polish Succession’ (Aug 1986), Jeremy Black, The International History Review Vol 8

Notes:
[1]: The Seven Years’ War
[2]: The American Revolution
[3]: The ‘House of Brandenburg’ as a historical term was also used in Prussian and German historiography. For example, Frederick II had referred to the ‘survival’ of Prussia during the Seven Years War as the ‘Miracle of the House of Brandenburg’ (‘Mirakel des Hauses Brandenburg’)


Next: Prelude — Problems and Patterns

 

[Georg von Frundsberg]

Europe in the early 18th century

PRELUDE: PROBLEMS AND PATTERNS​

The year 1688 in England is particularly relevant to future historians. It is a turning point in the political development of the British Isles, the climax of the power struggle between the crown and the parliament, the final defeat of political Catholicism in England, and the beginning of the nation’s parliamentary democracy. The Glorious Revolution was an ironic twist of events as the native James II was chastised as an irredeemable traitor to his country while William of Orange, a foreign Dutchman by birth, was welcomed by the enthusiastic English people as a crowned liberator. The liberal historians, who still dominated academic discourse until the turn of the 20th century, attributed Britain’s unique political trajectory, distinguished from its continental peers, to the day when William III landed at Brixham. Meanwhile, liberal politicians audaciously argued that the world should thank Britain for this Revolution, as democracy would not have existed without it.

Such a dramatic and significant political upheaval was also felt in foreign policy. In the late Tudor period, England’s utmost objective was self-preservation. An effect of the English Reformation was its isolation in European politics. Having provoked Rome and alienated its former ally, the Hapsburg Monarchy, England was in constant fear of a seaborne invasion from the continent. The fear of France or Spain landing an army in Cornwall or Kent had prompted significant investment in its navy and army, which were eventually tested in the Spanish Armada of 1588.

The climatic Spanish invasion was the last time England faced an acute threat of invasion for over a century. It enjoyed a period of respite after the ascension of James Stuart to the English throne in 1603, which united Scotland and England into a single dominion. The three-hundred-year fraternal bloodshed between the two kingdoms thus came to an end. Intensifying religious conflicts had destabilised much of Europe in the first half of the 17th century, so no continental power was capable of launching a costly expedition again. James I seized the chance to restore peace by concluding a treaty with Spain in 1604. His successor, Charles I, attempted to pursue an assertive foreign policy by intervening in the civil war in the Holy Roman Empire and France. Yet he faced a rebellious parliament that refused to pay a single dime for his misguided adventures. The reluctance of the parliament to raise taxes for war unintentionally restrained England’s foreign policy and preserved the hard-won peace. However, it was not spared from turmoil as religious enmity and political tensions between the crown and the parliament reached a boiling point in 1640. Following a destructive civil war, the new quasi-republican Cromwellian Protectorate that superseded the monarchy represented a shift in Britain’s foreign policy focus. By the 1650s, England already developed a robust maritime trade economy. Its diplomatic quarrels were mainly economic, such as the wars with the Dutch Republic and Spain in 1652 and 1655, which were skirmishes over trade and lucrative colonial ventures. In the heyday of mercantilism, England’s primary foreign policy doctrine was to advance its commercial interests. This was unchanged after the Restoration as seen in the Second and Third Anglo-Dutch Wars in 1667 and 1672.

The rise of royal absolutism in the latter half of the 17th century would become a new menace to Britain’s security. France and Austria overcame their internal disunities and became centralised states. Louis XIV curtailed the power of the nobility, crushed the Huguenot resistance, and resumed France’s expansionist ambitions, replacing Spain as England’s primary adversary. The Glorious Revolution had put Britain in a precarious situation. In the eyes of the parliamentarians, the French threat was not only geopolitical but also ideological, as it threatened to upend the constitutional order and Protestant faith. Their worries were not unwarranted since Louis XIV actively supported James II to reclaim his throne. To counteract this, William III developed the elaborate doctrine of ‘Balance of Powers’ based on Elizabethan foreign policy which aimed to prevent any power from dominating Continental Europe. This ideology-driven diplomacy prompted Britain to ally with Austria and the Dutch Republic in the Nine Years’ War and the War of the Spanish Succession.

The political upheavals coincided with a transformation of the formulation of foreign policy. The Bill of Rights drafted after the Glorious Revolution settled the half-century-long struggle between the crown and the parliament. It was, however, essentially a conservative document only at preventing the abrogation of the constitution. Royal power was checked, but not abolished, since it was a political compromise between the King and the ruling class. This arrangement distinguished Britain from that of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth where the crown’s power was further diminished. Had the parliamentarians been radical enough to demand an elective monarchy, British history would have been altered beyond recognition. The monarch was far from being a ‘roi fainéant’, he was still permitted, and even expected to rule by himself. A major misconception about the evolution of the British constitution is the belief that a parliamentary cabinet system developed almost overnight. Even by the 1750s, cabinet ministers were still appointed by the monarch and did not rely on a parliamentary majority to govern. It was not until a century after the Revolution that a responsible government emerged. The monarch’s prerogative was best illustrated in foreign policy-making. William III never appointed a foreign minister and singlehandedly negotiated the Treaty of the Hague without informing his ministers, let alone the parliament. It took years for the parliament to begin scrutinising diplomatic activities. The Second Partition Treaty in 1700 caused an uproar as parliamentarians had enough of King William’s recklessness. Since 1701, the monarch and his ministers were compelled to lay out draft treaties before the parliament for scrutiny, as exemplified in the approval of the Peace of Utrecht. Additionally, the ministers also often included a foreign policy statement in the annual throne speech, thereby inviting parliamentary debates.

The transformation of Britain in this era was not only political but also dynastical. In less than a century Britain was ruled by four royal houses: Stutart, Orange, Hanover and Brandenburg. William III died childless on March 8 1702 and the throne passed onto Queen Mary’s sister, Anne, who was also Charles I’s daughter. Her only child, the Prince of Gloucester had died two years prior. By law, her only surviving brother, James Edward Stuart, would be her successor. A Catholic by birth, he had escaped to France with his father so his candidacy was naturally unacceptable to the Protestant ruling class. The parliament then decided, with foresight, that the crown could only be passed onto the next closest Protestant relative under the Act of Settlement 1701, which brings us to the fledging Electorate of Hanover.

Located in North Germany, the Electorate of Hanover was an ascending power. For centuries the land has been ruled by the Dukes of Brunswick, who belonged to the House of Welf. The Welfs were once a prominent family in the High Middle Ages, rivalling the Hohenstuafens. Otto of Brunswick was even crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1209. The Welfs in the early 18th century had lost most of their prestige enjoyed by their ancestors but always had held the core lands between River Elbe and River Aller. In a feudal fashion, the lands were divided among different family branches but by clever political manoeuvres and pure luck, they would soon be unified by an ambitious Ernest Augustus.

Duke Ernest Augustus was the youngest of five children born to George of Brunswick, with three elder brothers. Few would expect him to succeed his father as the ruler of Calenberg, but in 1662 he managed to become the Prince-Bishop of Osnabrück according to the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia which mandated that the ruler of the Bishopric shall rotate between Catholics and Protestants. Although it was not a hereditary post, in 1665 he inherited the Duchy of Lüneburg following the death of his childless eldest brother Christian Louis. Then in 1679, he succeeded his third brother as the Prince of Calenburg. To consolidate his domain, he adopted primogeniture in 1682 so his holdings would not be divided again. Ten years later he was appointed as the ninth Prince-elector in the Empire, elevating his status to be equivalent to the rulers of Saxony and Bavaria.

His most significant achievement, however, would prove to be his marriage to Sophia of the Palatinate. As the sole surviving Protestant granddaughter of King James I, she emerged as the closest claimant to the English crown after Anne under the Act of Settlement 1701. Neither of them would live long enough to be crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury at Westminster Abbey. It would be their son, George Louis, who fulfilled that destiny. Neither Sophia nor George Louis were closely connected to England. He had only visited the country once in the winter of 1680. Queen Anne later banned both from visiting the country and bemoaned that “if he were in London he would be gleefully looking at my coffin!”

George Louis was born on 28 May 1660 and was already gifted in military skills in his adolescence. He distinguished himself as a courageous soldier in 1675 when he fought in the Low Countries during the Franco-Dutch War. He was given army command at the age of 18. He participated in the momentous Battle of Vienna and subsequently followed the renowned Eugene of Savoy in campaigns in the Balkans. Sadly, the war would also be disastrous for his family as the fighting claimed the lives of his two younger brothers, Christian and Frederick. He was eventually promoted to Field Marshal in 1710.

However, George was most remembered for his personal life and adultery, and his reputation would have been further tarnished without his second wife Sophia Hedwig of Denmark. He married his first cousin Sophia Dorothea in November 1682. It was a political move by his father to secure his inheritance to the Duchy of Celle since Duke George William had no legitimate male heir. The marriage was a rocky affair from the start since Sophia Dorothea was born out of a morganatic marriage and was despised by George’s mother. The marriage only went ahead due to his father’s insistence. Their first son, George Augustus, was born the following year, and a daughter, named after her mother, arrived three years later. Their births did not reconcile the husband and the wife, and they became more estranged as the years went by. George Louis often complained of his wife’s lack of etiquette, blaming it on her lower-class mother, while Sophia Dorothea lamented her husband’s stubborn personality in her family letters. Their relationship worsened while George spent years in the Balkans. Growing impatient, he began looking for new love. His father’s affairs had a bad influence on him. In one bizarre episode, he even offered his mistress’ sister to his son. In 1687, George fell in love with Melusine von der Schulenburg, the maid of honour to his mother. Nicknamed ‘the Scarecrow’ by the courtiers, she was a skinny and attractive lady. Sophia Dorothea also had an affair with a Swedish courtier Philip Christoph von Königsmarck, which became a scandal in 1694 when he vanished and was presumably murdered. Despite a lack of evidence, many historians point to Ernest Augustus as the culprit. Sophia Dorothea was quickly brought to trial for her unfaithfulness, and in a poignant move, she was incarcerated for life at Ahlden House, forever barred from seeing her children.

Hanoverian rule over Britain was relatively short-lived, lasting only from 1714 to 1757 with two monarchs, George and her daughter Sophia. Britain entered into a personal union with Hanover for 14 years, a foretaste of 1757 when Britain was united with Prussia under another personal union. Prussia and Hanover were constant annoyances to the parliament as they complicated Britain’s foreign policy. These political anomalies were the consequences of the Act of Settlement that the parliament had to bear. If anything, Hanover and Prussia tied Britain to unwanted continental conflicts. The geography of Hanover and Prussia could easily be exploited by hostile powers. Furthermore, the parliament’s intentions and the monarch’s interests seldom align naturally. George I's involvement in the Great Northern War had divided the cabinet whereas Frederick I was forced to carefully balance his ambitions and opposition from the parliament. The fact that both George and Frederick were sovereigns of another country created constitutional complications. Contemporary European diplomats often called Britain a “man with two heads”, which was an accurate description of its internal conflicts. The dislocation of decision-making powers would be a challenge for those studying British foreign policy in the 18th century.

Upon the death of Queen Sophia in 1757, the British crown passed to the House of Brandenburg, also known as the House of Hohenzollern in Germany. This house had ruled over Brandenburg since 1415 when Frederick I was appointed Elector by Emperor Sigismund. Brandenburg, characterized by sandy and barren soil, was ill-suited for agriculture, and its underdeveloped state with few industries and being landlocked posed challenges. Recognising these defects early on, the Electors and their advisers initiated reforms, leveraging strong authority over the nobles, a privilege uncommon elsewhere.

In 1555, Joachim II converted to Lutheranism and conveniently confiscated monastic lands, which were then converted into crown domains. This centralization of power set the stage for administrative and military reforms in the 17th century. In 1604, Elector John Sigismund expanded his territories by acquiring the duchies of Cleve and Mark, and in 1618, he inherited the Duchy of Prussia, then a Polish fief, from his father-in-law Albert Frederick.

The Thirty Years’ War was disastrous for the Electorate. Most of the country was ravaged by Swedish troops who plundered and depopulated the land. Elector Frederick William, who succeeded his father in 1640, assumed the herculean task of rebuilding his domain. He identified the need to build up a sizable and professional army to protect his country so in 1653 he taxed the estates to pay for a standing army of 30000 people. Efficient military and tax administrators were recruited to supplant the feudal order. He also explored various means to enrich his domain, either by inviting French Huguenot settlers or investing in the slave trade. It was however his diplomatic and military achievements that elevated Prussia to the great power of North Germany. In the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia Brandenburg was given Eastern Pomerania, Halberstadt, Minden and Magdeburg, a meagre compensation for the war losses. The 1657 Treaty of Wehlau with the Polish King John II brought him full sovereignty over the Duchy of Prussia and laid the groundwork for its elevation to a kingdom in 1701. When Sweden invaded Prussia in 1678, he initiated a bold and genius march across the frozen Couronian Lagoon on sleighs and successfully evicted them.

His son Frederick convinced Emperor Leopold to grant him the title of King. He was coronated at Königsberg on 18 January 1701, although he had to be content with the lesser title of ‘King in Prussia’ for now. Despite his extravagant and luxurious pursuits which emptied the state’s coffers, he showed a keen passion for art and sciences, founding the University of Halle and the Berlin Academy of Sciences.

While the rise of Prussia in the 17th century was remarkable and served as a lesson for good statesmanship, it was still at best a small German power in Europe sandwiched between Sweden and Austria. However, not even Frederick I would have dreamed in a few decades his house would rise to unparalleled prominence.


Next: A Family Tragedy

 

[Georg von Frundsberg]

CHAPTER I: The Queen, the King, and the Elector
Part 1: A Family Tragedy​

George Louis was determined not to let his children repeat his debacle with Sophia Dorothea so he allowed his son and daughter to choose whomever they truly loved. Aged 21 in 1705, George Augustus secretly travelled to Ansbach under the pseudonym of ‘Monsieur de Busch’. He desired to see Caroline, the daughter of Margrave John Frederick, who was famed for her intelligence and beauty. She was much sought after by princes across Europe, and was even proposed to the future Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI. However, reluctant to convert to Roman Catholicism, she rejected the offer. George Augustus was enchanted by her ‘good characters’ and liked her so dearly that he would not ‘think of anyone else’. She was also closely related to his family since she had been taken care of by his aunt, Queen Sophia Charlotte of Prussia after being orphaned at the age of 13. They finally tied the knot on 22 August 1705 in a lavish ceremony at Hanover. George Louis was overjoyed when she announced her pregnancy in May 1706. A son, named Frederick, was born on 20 January 1707. Later that year, Caroline contracted a case of pneumonia which spooked George Louis and her mother. While she managed to recover from the illness, she would not recover from heartbreaks.

George Louis’ daughter, Sophia Dorothea, married Prussian Prince Frederick William. The marriage between George Louis’ sister Sophia Charlotte and King Frederick I of Prussia had already brought the Hanoverians and Hohenzollerns together. Frederick initially desired a match between his son and the Swedish princess Ulrika Eleanora to pursue an alliance with Sweden, the hegemon of Northern Europe at the time. Swedish King Charles XII had routed Russia earlier at Narva and was invading Poland. Frederick William, however, preferred Sophia Dorothea and bribed the Prussian envoy to write a disparaging report about her to dissuade his father. Sophia Dorothea’s tall and slender figure had charmed Frederick William, who gave her the nickname ‘Fiekchen’.

The marriage, which took place in Berlin on 27 November 1706, was the most luxurious and extravagant of its time. Her grandmother bought her wedding trousseau from Paris, which was said to be the most beautiful among all German princesses. Frederick William and his family received her outside the city, beginning a six-week celebration with banquets, balls and torch dances.

Soon tragedies would befall the family.

Like his father, George Augustus was a fearless warrior who sought glory and excitement on the battlefield. The War of the Spanish Succession had been raging on in Flanders and France was preparing a new campaign to dislodge the Anglo-Austrian army led by the Duke of Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy. George Louis was cautious in letting his only son join the fight since he knew very well the dangers of war. It was only after the birth of Frederick that he was permitted to sign up to Eugene’s Imperial Army as a dragoon. In 1708, he was placed under the command of General Jorgan Rantzau. The French began their summer campaign by taking the initiative and capturing Ghent and Burges, then proceeded towards Oudenarde in an attempt to cut off Marlborough’s army from the English Channel. Marlborough had acted swiftly and preempted the French by reaching Lessines. This strategic manoeuvre thwarted the French commander, the Duke of Vendome, from exploiting the easier option of an attack from the south. He was forced to reroute across the River Scheldt and approach the city from the north, which delayed his army by a day. Meanwhile, Marlborough ordered pontoon bridges to be constructed to transport troops to the west bank. On July 11, at sunrise, he appointed his deputies William Cadgoan and Rantzau to lead an advance division comprising dragoons and infantrymen to the nearby village of Eine.

At around 09:00, the French advance guards, led by Lieutenant Duke of Biron, spotted the Anglo-Imperial army. He immediately alerted Vendome who ordered him to attack. The cautious Cadogan chose to wait for reinforcements [1], thus allowing Biron to take the initiative. His advance guards charged towards Cadogan’s dragoons at 13:00. George Augustus was one of many who took part in this action. He was struck by a projectile in the head and fell from his horse. The injuries were fatal. His death went unnoticed amid the smoke and chaos on the battlefield until the fighting subsided in the evening.

Biron’s attack was driven back by the timely arrival of an English infantry brigade led by John Campbell, which destroyed six cavalry units. The main French army was divided into two flanks, with the left flank commanded by the Duke of Burgundy and the right led by Vendome. The grandson of King Louis XIV, Burgundy was an arrogant and inexperienced general who often quarrelled with the latter. Vendome made his move at 13:00 [2] but Burgundy, surprisingly, withheld his troops, convinced that the marshy terrain in front of him was not suitable for cavalry. Some historians believed it was merely an excuse and Burgundy’s inaction was a deliberate protest. Alarmed by the attack, Marlborough hastily ordered a crossing. The two armies met at the village of Bevere at 15:00, just in time for him to take defensive positions [2]. A two-hour pitched battle ensued as Marlborough struggled to overcome French infantry lines. On the right flank along the Diepenbeck stream, Rantzau’s cavalry ferociously fended off Biron’s repeated attempt to take over the bridge. The latter briefly prevailed but Eugene’s forces had arrived just in time to save the flank from collapse. Biron was shot by a Prussian cavalryman and was carried off the battlefield. As his squadron panicked and dispersed, Vendome’s left flank was exposed. He quickly dispatched reservists and the elite Maison de Roi cavalry to hold the line. He failed to notice that a Dutch reinforcement of 25000 men, led by General Hendrik Overkirk had occupied Boser Couter heights, prepared to take his rear. The Dutch cavalrymen charged down the hill like a flood, Vendome ordered a withdrawal at 18:30 and a rout ensued. Burgundy finally set off to aid his comrades but he was too late. They briefly briefly skirmished with a Dutch squadron led by the Prince of Orange, but he was beaten back. By 20:00, the fighting subsided as Burgundy and Vendome retreated to Ghent.

George Augustus’ corpse was discovered and carried back to Hanover. When his father was informed of his death five days later he reportedly sat ‘like a rock’, unable to process what had happened. He did not inform his mother Sophia until his son’s coffin arrived a week later. Caroline broke down and wept when the news broke to her. She was so devastated that she did not eat for two days. His funeral was held on 25 July at the Herrenhausen Palace chapel, the same spot where he married Caroline two years ago. Sophia Dorothea and Frederick William travelled to Hanover to say a final goodbye to her brother. The Prussian Prince wrote that “even the carriage horses felt her sadness… she never stopped weeping and her eyes were as red and swollen”. George Augustus’ mother was surprisingly missing from the funeral as she was not informed until after it had taken place.

With the death of his father, the infant Frederick was the first-in-line to succeed the Electorate after George Louis, followed by his childless brother Ernest Augustus. He was carefully taken care of by Caroline and her mother-in-law. Sadly, another disaster struck weeks after.

There was a renewed outbreak of smallpox among servants at Herrenhausen in autumn. The same plague would go on to ravage European royal courts until 1714. The young Frederick possibly contracted the disease from a maid. Electress Sophia summoned a physician from the Netherlands while a horrified Caroline, barely recovering from bereavement, secluded herself at the chapel praying for a miracle. Emanuel Howe, the British ambassador to Hanover at the time noted that “... she was going through unbearable trials. She is hollowed out within, her eyes show a contagious sorrow and paranoia as she stares aimlessly and whispers scriptures wherever she goes… staying alone in the chapel until late midnight, and often skipping supper…” Her prayers, however, were all for nought, as Frederick would pass away on the night of 21 September. Upon hearing the news, George Louis fell to his knees in disbelief. It was said that Sophia collapsed on her chair immediately. Caroline was awakened from sleep when the Dutch physician broke into her room and stuttered out the bad news. What followed was a prolonged and eerie silence, and then a sudden scream that could be heard throughout the palace. These nightmares had broken her.

The effects of George Augustus and Frederick’s deaths were also felt in Britain. The news arrived in London in October just as Queen Anne’s husband, Prince-consort George of Denmark, succumbed to a lung disease. She reportedly lamented “Our Lord is disfavouring me and my lineage of inheritance.” Their deaths were widely publicised in pamphlets and gazettes and conveniently reused in political propaganda. Whigs and Anti-Papists blamed George Augustus’ death on an elaborate conspiracy plotted by the exiled Jacobites and Rome, accusing them of sabotaging the Protestant Succession. On the contrary, High Church followers like Henry Sacheverell joyfully called it a ‘divine retribution’, which was later cited as evidence in his impeachment trial in 1710. Some historians attributed Marlborough’s fall from grace to Anne blaming his alleged negligence for George Augustus’ death.

Notes:
[1]: Point of Divergence: In OTL Cadogan had attacked first and inflicted a defeat on Biron’s cavalry and Swiss guards. The fighting was a close call for George Augustus as it was said that the colonel behind him was killed.
[2]: In OTL, Vendome wasted crucial time waiting for Burgundy’s move. Here Vendome had acted sooner, giving Marlborough less time to prepare.

Next: The Two Brides

 

[Georg von Frundsberg]

CHAPTER I: The Queen, the King, and the Elector
Part 2: The Two Brides​

The death of George Augustus and Frederick had alarmed George Louis and his mother Sophia. The succession to the electorate was in jeopardy as there were no surviving legitimate male heirs from George and his brothers. Under the Salic Laws of inheritance applicable in Germany at the time, women were barred from inheriting electoral titles so Sophia Dorothea was automatically discounted from the line of succession. George Louis’ surviving younger brother, Ernest Augustus, then the governor of Osnabrück, was single. His other brother, Maximilian William, rebelled against his father over the adoption of primogeniture in 1691. The plot was exposed by her sister Sophia Charlotte which resulted in his exile to Vienna. Since then he became a field marshal of the Imperial Army. His father had denied his inheritance and his conversion to Catholicism in 1692 did not help to boost his legitimacy. He was also not on the line of succession to the British throne and was unmarried.

Grasping the urgency of the situation, Sophia urged his two sons to marry as soon as they could. At one point she even contemplated revising his husband’s will to return Maximilian William to the line of succession. This plan threatened Ernest Augustus’s position as the heir apparent due to Maximilian William’s seniority. He therefore secretly sent a letter to Vienna warning him of a fictitious plot to capture him if he returned to Hanover. Sophia’s invitation was subsequently turned down.

Sophia planned to have Ernest Augustus marry the widowed Caroline, a suggestion both had pushed back against. Caroline was totally devastated by the double blow of the death of her husband and son and became severely depressed. She reportedly avoided any outside contact and was confined to her private quarters. She occasionally burst into tears and cried hysterically. Ernest Augustus had referred to her fragile mental state to argue that she was unfit to marry. Caroline was also outraged at Sophia for keeping her child away throughout his illness, and was horrified when Sophia forced her into another marriage. She protested and demanded to be allowed to return home, a request adamantly refused by Sophia. She resorted to writing letters pleading with her guardian King Frederick of Prussia to intercede. After much persuasion from the King, a reluctant Sophia eventually gave in and Caroline moved to Berlin in 1710.

Ernest Augustus would marry Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel in 1709. The marriage nearly did not happen as she was betrothed to the Dutch Prince Johan William Friso. He had travelled to Hesse-Kassel in person to greet her. He was a charismatic and gifted soldier who garnered fame following the Battle of Oudenarde as part of the cavalry squadron that heroically charged against Vendome’s army. Marie Loise obviously preferred the energetic Prince of Organe but her father, Landgrave Charles changed his mind at the last minute. George Louis was a personal friend of Charles as both were commanders of the Imperial Army. He wrote letters to persuade Charles to marry his daughter to Ernest Augustus. For Charles, the match was a generous offer. A marriage with the Hanoverians, the soon-to-be British royal family could bring him and his country prestige.

After divorcing Sophia Dorothea of Celle in 1694, George Louis did not remarry. He never felt lonely as his mistress Melusine von der Schulenburg accompanied him all the time, even fathering three illegitimate daughters. Of course, he still had her daughter, Sophia Dorothea, so the succession to the British throne was secured at least for now. Yet he had been compelled to seek a bride once more to sire a son, the legitimate heir to the Electorate. His mother initially preferred Marie Louise since she was younger and presumably more fertile. George Louis, however, had other plans. He initially considered a match between Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden, King Charles XII’s sister, and him or Ernest Augustus. Plans for a matrimonial alliance, however, were abandoned following Sweden’s disastrous defeat at the hands of the Russians at Poltava in July 1709. The defeat also induced Denmark and Poland, humiliated by the Swedes, to reenter the war, just as George Louis received an offer from Frederick VI of Denmark proposing a marriage with her sister Sophia Hedwig.

Born on 28 August 1677 to the Danish King Christian V, she was the oldest among all suitors. She was best remembered for her artistic talent as she composed songs and painted portraits. She was also a collector of rare books and manuscripts. She was first engaged to her cousin John George of Saxony, yet the agreement was dissolved when he assumed the role of Elector in 1691. Subsequently, the prospect of a union with Archduke Joseph, the future Holy Roman Emperor, emerged, but her steadfast refusal to convert to Catholicism posed a hurdle. In 1699, a marriage alliance with Sweden was considered. She would be betrothed to Charles XII of Sweden, but the idea of an oxymoronic alliance with Sweden’s historical rival proved too unpopular for him to accept.

To George Louis, marrying Sophia Hedwig could further advance his political ambitions. He had dreamed of being the leader of Northern Germany and coveted the neighbouring Duchies of Bremen and Verden which were under Swedish occupation following the Thirty Years’ War. Seizing them would provide Hanover with access to the North Sea. The Great Northern War granted him the perfect opportunity to expand and with Sweden’s defeat on the horizon, it would be his chance to make a move. A matrimonial alliance with Denmark Danish through Sophia Hedwig could provide him with much-needed military and diplomatic support.

Frederick IV’s idea was simple. Marrying her sister to George Louis not only secured an alliance with Hanover but also with Britain. He vividly remembered that in 1700 the English sided with Sweden. He was forced to sign a humiliating peace as the English fleet bombarded Copenhagen. With the Russian victory at Poltava and King Charles XII’s exile to the Ottoman Empire, Sweden was no longer a feared foe and King Frederick had been advocating for a new anti-Swedish coalition which already included Russia, Saxony and Poland. He hoped to entice support from Britain and its Royal Navy, which could overwhelm the Swedish in combat.

The marriage, however, was fiercely opposed by Sophia Hedwig. George Louis’ poor treatment of his former wife had attracted much notoriety across Europe and she worried that the same fate could befall her. She even called George Louis “the worst English king since Henry VIII”. Her mother, Charlotte Amalie of Hesse-Kassel intervened and refused to let her travel to Hanover upon her incessant persuasion. In the end, Frederick implored George not to 'mistreat' her, which George acquiesced. Sophia Hedwig travelled to Hanover and the marriage ceremony took place on 22 February 1710. George subsequently concluded an alliance treaty with Denmark at Copenhagen on 3 March, in which Hanover would receive Bremen-Verden in exchange for military assistance.

George and Sophia never had an intimate relationship throughout the marriage. She looked to distance herself from him as far as possible, preferring seclusion to immerse herself in artistic pursuits. To give an illusion of reconciliation, they would dine together occasionally, pretending to be a loving couple in front of her mother-in-law. Nevertheless, Sophia performed her duty as a wife and announced her pregnancy in 1711. The news had jubilated George and his mother, but they were soon let down as the child turned out to be a girl whom George named Charlotte Amalie. Electress Sophia passed away at the age of 80 two months after she was born [1], and George Louis was elevated to the heir presumptive to the British throne. The couple’s relationship deteriorated further after her death and they rarely spoke to each other. Still, Sophia Hedwig would give birth to another daughter named Federica in January 1713. George's utmost wish was finally fulfilled in July 1714, as she gave birth to a son named George Augustus in remembrance of his deceased son. Sadly, he passed away in merely four weeks, which left him devastated.

His brother Ernest Augustus failed to father any children. At times he was even rumoured as a homosexual, but historians today attributed his childlessness to his infertility.

Notes:
[1]: On 11 August 1711.

Next: The Long Road to Peace