Portuguese Southern Africa - a TL

[Viriato]

War of Polish Succession 1766

It's funny that Poland had been mentioned earlier, when I had been researching this scenario for another war in Europe.

During the Great Northern War earlier in the century, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had been left badly divided as the emerging powers of Prussia and Russia sought to dominate Poland's internal politics by using its powerful noble families as pawns. In addition, the plague had killed off a large number of the Commonwealth's inhabitants, further weakening the kingdom.

Though Stanisław I had managed to secure the throne of Poland with Swedish backing, much of his rule would rest on his alliances with Austria and France. During most of his reign, the Polish Sejm (Diet) in which every noble possessed the "Liberum Veto", or the right of veto, failed to pass any meaningful legislation leaving the Commonwealth largely paralyzed. Furthermore, the strongest noble clans such as the Czartoryski and Potocki families made the raising of a significant army impossible as they had become pawns of Russia. However, during during the last war when Russia, Austria, and France were allied, the king allowed Russian troops to pass through his kingdom to attack Prussia. Prussia's army had become the second largest in Europe, and it King Stanisław hoped that it could be contained.

However, in February 1766 Stanisław I died, and the process to elect a new King of Poland began, with the great powers backing rival candidates. Stanisław had hoped to have his grandson-in-law, Infante Alexandre of Portugal, Duke of Coimbra (born in 1723), and son of King João V of Portugal elected as the next King of Poland. Alexandre was backed by France as he was married to Princess Anne Henriette of France (born 1727), daughter of Louis XV and Marie Leszczyńska. Infante Alexandre was also able to secure the backing of Austria, Saxony, Hungary, Bavaria and Sweden.

Meanwhile, Tsarina Catherine of Russia sought to have her former lover Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski elected king, and to that end she received backing from Prussia as the two countries began plotting territorial aggrandizement at the expense of Poland. The powerful Potocki and Czartoryski families initially backed their own candidates, but Portugal's King José I allocated large sums of gold to back his younger brother's claim. France too, began to buy off nobles in favour of Alexandre and began to prepare for war. Infante Alexandre, did have another important ally in his quest for the throne, the Lithuanian szlachta (nobles) who were virulently anti-Russian, and resented Russian meddling in Polish politics.

Further south, the Ottoman Empire and the Papal States backed the candidacy of Infante Alexandre to the Polish throne, Spain and the Two Sicilies followed suit. Meanwhile, Great Britain and Denmark backed Stanisław Poniatowski, dividing Europe into two opposing camps. King José of Portugal, however had allocated large enough funds to buy not only the popular votes of the over 5,000 electors in Poland, but he also issued a no interest loan equaling 7 million guilders to Austria so that it could rebuild its army.

In April 1766, Russia and Prussia had signed a pact agreeing to invade Poland to support Poniatowski. With the elections of the new king scheduled for October 1766, the Prussians began military preparations. This led to the Swedes and Austrians following suit. The first move however occurred when a Russian army crossed the border and headed towards Warsaw in May 1766 after the backers of Infante Alexandre blocked any bills brought forward by Poniatowski's backers. A Swedish army soon followed suit, entering Courland, nominally a Polish vassal. In addition, the backers of Infante Alexandre were able to raise 6,000 troops, with arms sent from courtesy of the Portuguese government.

Prussia's army had been left severely weakened in the previous two wars, but Frederick was able to muster an army of 80,000. Sending around 14,000 men to defend Pomerania from the Swedes and another army of 20,000 into Warmia. Due to the Portuguese loan, the Austrians raised an army of 100,000 composed of large numbers of mercenaries from various imperial states. This army crossed the border on 18 June 1766 and secured Galicia, occupying Krakow on behalf of Infante Alexandre. The French for their part began to send large quantities of munitions to Sweden, allowing a Swedish army of 64,000 men to gather in Finland and allowing the Swedes to reinforce Livonia and Pomerania. Seeing the situation worsen, Portugal issued a subsidy equalling 10 million riksdaler to Sweden in October 1766.

 

[Viriato]

War of Polish Succession 1766-1768

By early 1767, Infante Alexandre had been able to raise an army of over 65,000 men in Poland to fight the Russians and Prussians. Meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia invading from the South in March. In the North, the Swedes had been able to occupy a large part of Ingria and the Kola Peninsula.

France and Great Britain remained on the sidelines of the war however, as both countries were still heavily indebted from the last wars. France however did provide material aid and officers to Sweden, while Great Britain provided financial aid to Prussia. As all of the major Catholic princes of Europe now recognized Infante Alexandre as King of Poland, in August 1767, the Pope issued a bull calling on Catholics to support King Alexander II as rightful King of Poland. This greatly aided the infante's cause and led to a levee-en-masse of much of the population, especially in the western portions of Poland. Another boost came in the form of aid from Hungary, as the Hungarians sent troops to fight on behalf of King Alexander.

The Prussians meanwhile turned their attention to Silesia once more as it became clear that their primary objective was to annex Austrian territory. As most of the Austrian forces were battling in Poland, the Prussians were able to conquer much of Silesia, however they were defeated at Breslau in October 1767. In Poland, the Russian troops abandoned Warsaw as many of the Poles had begun a guerrilla campaign, forcing them to retreat eastwards. In addition, troops were sent to protect St. Petersburg, as the Swedes were threatening the Russian capital. In March 1768, the Russians suffered a defeat at the hands of the Polish and Swedish Armies at Połock (moder Polotsk), and were largely expelled from Poland along with many of their supporters.

With the Portuguese bankrolling Alexander's expanding army, Catherine decided that attempting to conquer Poland was too difficult. Therefore, Catherine of Russia agreed to recognize Alexander II as King of Poland, and to that end withdrew the last Russian troops from Poland so that she could turn her attention to the Ottomans. In return, King Alexander made a secret agreement with the Russians giving them a free hand in dealing with the Ottomans. Hungary too agreed too agreed to this and withdrew its forces.

In May 1768, Russia made peace with the Swedes, with Russia and Poland recognizing Courland as a Swedish vassal, in addition the Swedes would keep the sparsely inhabited Kola Peninsula. Prussia too made peace and agreed to evacuate Russian territory in return for a small portion Warmia and minor border adjustments in Silesia. With peace secured, King Alexander II was crowned in Warsaw in March 1769, and was able to begin his reform of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Under King Alexander II, much of the Polish and Lithuanian nobility's traditional privileges were curbed, as he was able to raise a fairly large army to defeat any opposition. He utilized the large burgher class of urban bourgeoisie as his main supporters by granting them privileges in the Sejm, in return for their assistance against the magnates. In addition, many of the nobles who had supported Stanisław Poniatowski fled to neighbouring Russia, where they were given estates in lands newly conquered from the Ottomans. To gain complete control of Poland among the first legislation passed was the creation of a modern standing army, and a police force. In addition the abolition of feudal rights to collect tariffs, and the abolition of the liberum veto in the Sejm were all reforms that were enacted within the first few years of King Alexander II's reign.

Throughout the twenty-year reign of Alexander II (1769-1789), serfdom was slowly abolished in Poland, with peasants no longer tied to estates. Often criticized for his heavy handed tactics in suppressing opposition, the king abolished the provincial assemblies and centralized the state in Warsaw, creating a modern bureaucracy and treasury. To placate the nobles, he increased the size of the Royal Court in Warsaw, introducing elaborate ceremonies as those he had grown up with in Lisbon (and his wife in Versailles). The magnates soon vied for positions within the Royal Household, where they would spend their time under close supervision of the king. In addition to this new hereditary titles were granted, that of duke, marquess, count, viscount and baron, allowing the nobility to now curry the favour of the sovereign.

As an enlightened monarch, Alexander II introduced a uniform legal code, created an independent judiciary of magistrates, and granted toleration of religious minorities. Most importantly he was able to have the Sejm agree to Poland becoming a hereditary monarchy for his heirs and successors with the crown passing through male primogeniture and to females if the male line should become extinct. This would do away with much of Poland's inherent internal weakness. When he died in September 1789, his eldest son inherited the throne becoming King John III (born 1752). In addition, he had two younger sons, and four princesses, all of whom would marry into the royal houses of Spain, Hungary, Savoy and Austria.

Though a relatively short war, the War of Polish succession allowed France, Sweden and Austria to preserve Poland as a counterweight to the growing powers in the region, namely Prussia and Russia. However, once the war was over, Russia continued its war with the Ottoman Empire until 1771, annexing vast swaths of territory including Moldavia, Wallachia and the Crimean Peninsula.

 

[EMT]

I knew it was coming but it doesn't make the blow any easier. Why would Poland sell out the Ottomans, basically their only safe ally against the Russians?

 

[Viriato]

I knew it was coming but it doesn't make the blow any easier. Why would Poland sell out the Ottomans, basically their only safe ally against the Russians?

A weakened Austria in this TL and a slightly stronger Sweden want to prevent Russian and Prussian expansion, so they'd rather prop up Poland. I imagine this Poland being part of a France-Austria-Sweden alliance to contain Great Britain-Russia-Prussia.

 

[EMT]

A weakened Austria in this TL and a slightly stronger Sweden want to prevent Russian and Prussian expansion, so they'd rather prop up Poland. I imagine this Poland being part of a France-Austria-Sweden alliance to contain Great Britain-Russia-Prussia.

But at the same time, I can't imagine that Poland trusts either Sweden or Austria, both of which have expanded at the PLC's expense. Which is why I mention the Ottomans as the only safe ally the Poles could have. I wouldn't be surprised if it was a short-sighted move on their part though. Long-term, it makes sense, but I suppose the new king's primary objective was to win his throne.

 

[EMT]

Double post but, here is a (very) rough version of the world as of the latest update, based on the info I have. Almost all of Asia is off, and Africa outside of North and Southern Africa too; this is based on the original V2 start, instead of say, PDM's, for which I could not find a map. But Portugal's colonial empire should be accurate for the most part, as well as Europe. Anything that I wasn't sure what to do with got colored gray. Some borders are godawful to look at, but that's because the provinces are being colored as-is.

 

[Viriato]

Austro-Bavarian Union

In 1777 the last elector of the male Witteslbach line died, with his only heir being his daughter Princess Maria Anna. She was married to Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, leading to a potential union of the Austrian and Bavarian crowns. As, Maria Anna had died in 1772 while giving birth to their son, Archduke Ferdinand, he was inherited the throne. As Archduke Ferdinand was in his infancy, his father assumed the regency.

Prussia and Saxony were quick to dispute the union of Austria and Bavaria, preferring that the Bavarian throne go to a distant branch of the Wittelsbachs who ruled over Palatinate. Though it became clear that none of the great powers would intervene, Prussia began to mobilize its troops. However, both France and Russia negotiated settlement between Austria, Prussia and Saxony, averting war. Archduke Ferdinand would inherit the Bavarian throne, and a cash settlement would be offered to Saxony, Prussia would receive a portion of Upper Silesia.

With Archuke Ferdinand still in his infancy, Joseph II assumed the role of regent of Bavaria between 1777 and 1789. During his rule, Bavaria was administratively incorporated into Austria. Joseph II had aimed to centralize his empire in Vienna with one single government, and he was largely successful in his goals. By the time his son Ferdinand died in 1789, Bavaria had ceased to exist as an independent entity. With no heirs, Bavaria's succession was once again up in the air. However, by 1789 the powers were too preoccupied with other matters, and Austria kept Bavaria.

 

[Archangel]

Keep it up, Viriato!

 

[Braganza]

I'm loving your originality: You strenghtened the French colonies, created a reformed and formidable Poland, an independent Hungary, an Austro-Bavarian union and you also adverted a Prussian-wank which I see happening ad infinitum is most TLs here, independent of the POD.

Keep up the good work!

 

[SavoyTruffle]

Wow, you weren't kidding with the butterflies hitting Europe full force by 1700.

Revolution may come, but with France a bit more isolationist OTL the French Revolution of OTL won't likely happen. Maybe it takes a different form...

 

[Viriato]

Counter-Enlightenment and the Tenth Crusade

Throughout the 18th century, ideas based on reason and science began to take hold throughout Europe. Many of Europe's monarchs became followers of enlightened philosophers and implemented reforms in their respective realms throughout this period. Traditionalism and ideology tied to the Catholic Church in particular was dismissed. Among the most prominent of the enlightened rulers were Catherine II of Russia, Gustav III of Sweden, Joseph II of Austria, and Frederick II of Prussia.

In Portugal the enlightenment had its own proponent with King José I adopting many policies based on reason and science during his reign between 1750 to 1777. Like European contemporaries, he implemented administrative changes throughout the Portuguese Empire that would signal the birth of the modern state bureaucracy. Among his most far reaching actions however, was the expulsion of the Jesuits. However, upon the death of José, his younger daughter ascended to the throne as Maria I.

Among the first acts of Queen Maria I was to dismiss her father's ministers, and replace them with ultraconservative members of the aristocracy and the clergy. Suffering from the early signs of mental illness, the queen became devoutly religious as court ceremonies began resembling church rituals. Although the queen suffered from early signs of mental instability, she remained in control of the reins of government until 1792, when her son João would assume the regency of the kingdom until her death in 1816.

As Queen Maria I's mental health deteriorated she developed a state of paranoia by the 1780s. When Moroccan forces lay siege to the Portuguese fortresses in Morocco in 1780, Maria became convinced that the moors were trying to reconquer Portugal. Tangier, Ceuta, Mazagão, Anfa, and Larache, were the remnants of Portugal's XV and XVIth centuries fortresses in Morocco and had largely become costly to garrison. The Sultan of Morocco had hoped that he could drive the Portuguese from Morocco along with the Spanish from Melilla and Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña (Ifni) thereby gaining valuable ports from which to conduct privateering operations against European states.

For centuries now, Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli had derived much of their fortune from piracy, attacking and capturing the ships of European nations, meanwhile taking Christians as slaves, often ransoming them for cash or goods. In addition, they pillaged various European coastal towns, particularly in the Mediterranean, but their piracy had reached as far as Iceland and Ireland. In the latter half of the 18th century the piracy reached epic proportions as European states now preferred to barter captives rather than pay ransoms. Though this policy was popular with the inhabitants of the Barbary ports, it provided less income for the rulers of the various states, forcing their ships to raid more coastal towns along the Mediterranean, Aragon, Southern Spain and Italy were particularly hard hit. This led to more captives being taken and by 1775, nearly one-third of Algiers' population was composed of Christian slaves.

In Portugal, the conservative members of the Queen Maria's cabinet began to plan a new crusade that would finally defeat the Mediterranean of the the Barbary Pirates, and avenge Alcácer Quibir. In 1781, the Portuguese fortresses had been relieved, but Portugal began to build a coalition with which to reconquer North Africa from the Muslims. Portugal quickly found an ally in the Papal States, where earlier in the century, Cardinal Giulio Alberoni had written a treatise proposing the partition of the Ottoman Empire among various states. Alberoni had called the empire "a general Corruption and Venality, scarcely known in the World, since the time of the Romans." The Order of Malta too agreed to join the Portuguese as did Spain. This was soon followed by Sardinia, the Two Sicilies and Aragon.

Further north, France's young King Louis XVI was heavily influenced by the counter-enlightenment and he too sought to conquer lands from the Ottomans. As early as 1769, the Duke of Choiseul had called for France to take Egypt along with the Levant and Crete. To that end in 1777, the Hungarian Baron de Tott had been appointed Inspector General of the Levant. This allowed him to make military reconnaissance in Syria and Egypt, and lay the groundwork for an eventual French occupation.

Further east, Catherine II of Russia had her own ambition of recreating the Byzantine Empire, taking Constantinople and placing her grandson on the throne of Constantinople. In 1777, the first discussions began with Hungary on a partition of the Ottoman Empire, where Hungary would receive Serbia and Bosnia, with Russia occupying the rest of the Balkan Peninsula. In 1781, secret negotiations between France and Russia began where Russia agreed to France being given Crete, Egypt and the Levant.

In Portugal, ships were assembled in Lagos throughout 1780 and 1781, in preparation for an invasion of Morocco. In addition, 60,000 troops were assembled with an additional 40,000 arriving from Brazil and Nova Lusitânia in 1782. In Spain, some 30,000 men were gathered at Cadiz to begin an invasion of Algiers. Meanwhile Savoyard, Neapolitan, and Papal ships gathered in Malta to prepare for an invasion of Tunis and Tripoli.

 

[Viriato]

North African War

In April 1782, the Portuguese offensive operations against Morocco began with the bombardment of small coastal ports including Agadir and Salé. At Larache, an invasion force of 30,000 men consisting mostly of Swiss, German, Irish and Polish battalions set out towards Alcacer Quibir, where in May 1782 they symbolically won a battle against the Moroccans and hoisted the Portuguese flag. Further south, the ports of Azemour, Mogador (Essaouira), and Safim (Safi) had been taken by July, depriving Marrakech of access to the sea.

In June 1782, a joint Portuguese and Spanish naval force bombarded Algiers with heavy artillery to destroy the fortifications. A few days later over 46,000 men from Spain landed west of Algiers and they were able to capture to take the fort by July 1782. Throughout the summer and autumn of 1782, the Portuguese recruited larger numbers of mercenaries throughout Europe, with Queen Maria allocating vast sums of money on the reconquest of North Africa.

Further East, the Portuguese navy bombarded Tunis, Sfax, and Tripoli and provided transports for the Savoyard from Sardinia to Bizerta. Meanwhile the Savoyard possession of Tabarca was reinforced. Over 100,000 troops from Savoy were used in the conquest of Tunis, and by April of 1783 this highly professional army had overrun most of the coastal cities and taken La Cala and Bona in Algeria, helping to provide some assistance to the Spaniards. The Neopolitans, Papal States, and Maltese took over Tripoli and Benghazi. Here both the Portuguese and French Navy provided assistance.

The French for their part assembled over 200,000 troops to begin their war against the Ottomans. Their first action was begun with the occupation of Crete, where the French were greeted as liberators. This was followed with a naval battle against the Ottomans where both Karpathos and Rhodes were taken. In April 1782, the French began their invasion of Egypt, taking Alexandria and capturing a largely abandoned Cairo by August 1782. At the same time, from the island of Cyprus they invaded Syria by capturing Tripoli (Syria) and Latakia. Aleppo, Jerusalem, and Beirut were also in French control by December of 1782. The Russians for their part invaded Rumelia in 1782 and the Hungarians invaded Bosnia and Serbia, while the Savoyards and French gave assistance to the Montenegrins.

The Christian populations of the Ottoman Empire soon began revolting against Ottoman Rule, particularly the Greeks, leading to reprisals. This led the French to occupying Morea and Smyrna in 1783. The Portuguese meanwhile captured Fez and Marrakech by 1784, as the Sultan of Morocco was killed, Morocco was formally incorporated as a Portuguese territory. In Eastern Algeria, the Savoyard army was able to win a decisive victory with their capture of Constantine in 1784, and their troops came to the assistance of the Two Sicilies and Maltese in Tripoli. Resistance to Portuguese, Spanish, and Italian rule in North Africa would carry on in the mountains for another decade however.

Throughout 1785, the Russians continued to send troops through the Caucasus and the Kuban, capturing Georgia and Armenia by 1787. The Ottomans repeatedly attempted to sue for peace, and sought allies, but no assistance was forthcoming as the British were preoccupied with internal problems. French troops occupied all of Assyria and much of Coastal Anatolia, along with Greece. In September 1787, after a long siege the Russians were able to capture Constantinople and Scutari, now controlling the Bosporus. Triumphantly, Russian troops entered the city and their first act was to demolish the minarets of the Hagia Sophia and reconvert the building into a Greek Orthodox Cathedral. However, the Russians would spend the next five years sweeping up pockets of resistance throughout Anatolia and the Balkans, often using heavy handed tactics against Muslims forcing many to flee, with many making their way to Central Asia and Arabia.

For the Muslim populations of North Africa, the Caucasus, the Balkans, Syria and Anatolia this war would be devastating. Resistance to the new rulers would continue for many years in some regions. However, in 1785 the plague swept through the region, originating in Mecca and being carried by jihadists to the Atlas Mountains and the Oasis' of Egypt and Libya. Here refugees had gathered in large numbers, killing half of the Arab and Berber population of North Africa by 1788. The plague would return in 1792-1794, again in 1796-1797 and coupled with poor harvests in 1798-1800 and another plague in 1817, the population of the region had been reduced to a few hundred thousand. The plague had largely achieved what the force of arms had started.

Among Portugal and Spain the partition of Morocco was agreed to as follows: Spain would receive all land East of Cape Tres Forcas where Melilla is located and South of Agadir. Portugal would receive the rest.

The House of Savoy would receive Algeria East of Bugia (Bejaia) and all of Tunis. The Two Sicilies would receive Tripoli and Bengasi (Benghazi) whilst France would receive Egypt, Assyria, Jerusalem and Crete. Spain would receive Western Algeria and Eastern Morocco.

Hungary would receive Bosnia, Herzegovina and Serbia. Wallachia, Moldavia and Bessarabia would be constitute a new Kingdom under her grandson Grand Duke Nicholas, while Anatolia and the rest of the Balkan Peninsula would be granted to her grandson Grand Duke Constantine as the new emperor of this reconstituted Byzantine Empire. As both were minors, the territories were to be administered by Catherine's favourites.

 

[SavoyTruffle]

That pretty much leaves West Africa as the only place on the continent not occupied by Europeans come 1850.

And with the Ottomans so dismembered will Persia and/or Muslim Indian states be the standard-bearers of Islam ITTL?

 

[Braganza]

Triumphantly, Russian troops entered the city and their first act was to demolish the minarets of the Hagia Sophia and reconvert the building into a Greek Orthodox Cathedral.

[...] Anatolia and the rest of the Balkan Peninsula would be granted to her grandson Grand Duke Constantine as the new emperor of this reconstituted Byzantine Empire.

As a Byzantophile and not a big fan of the Ottoman Empire this made me guiltily elated.

So... Another original butterflies in your TL: The Mediterranean Sea is now a Christian Mare Nostrum and you also adverted an Ottoman-wank/survival that is quite common here.

 

[AussieHawker]

This isn't just Portugal wank. This is European wank. All that is left is part of the Pacific, Some of mainland Asia and then Central Africa.

 

[EMT]

...wow. I'm mostly disgusted by this, but the writing was on the wall. But the extent to which the Muslim world was just exterminated...no words.

 

[Viriato]

Pacification and Colonisation of North Africa and the Middle East

In Morocco, the Portuguese would setabout on a brutal campaign to expel any of the population that refused to convert to Catholicism. With Nova Lusitânia's annual gold production reaching now being worth more than France's entire budget for ten years, the Portuguese crown easily afford this final reconquista. Though the conquest of Morocco popular with the masses of Portugal and its Empire as it was seen as a reversal of Alcácer Quibir, the brutal occupation was criticized by the enlightened thinkers, especially in Great Britain and France.

In addition, the occupation of Morocco tied down an army of 60,000 troops, as they were often sent into the mountains against a guerrilla army. Also, they were often needed to assist the Spanish in Algeria, to prevent raids from crossing the border. In 1786 a large scale settlement scheme was planned where lands were given free to settlers from Madeira, the Azores and Portugal. By 1790 some 12,000 had settled from Portugal, they were joined by 18,000 New Lusitanians (mostly soldiers) who had been granted large land grants in return for their military service. However, the last major resistance would continue until 1792.

In Southern Morocco, the Spanish presence would be limited to the fort of Sidi Ifni as little Pacification occurred south of Agadir. In Algeria, too the Spanish initially had a difficult and costly task in pacifying their territory, and this would not be fully accomplished until 1808, as the Atlas Mountains remained a hornet's nest of guerrilla activity. By 1800 there were only 75,000 Spaniards in the newly conquered territory, however throughout the 19th century this number would rise drastically. The Spaniards like the Portuguese expelled Moors and this led to a bloody campaign of repression, driving the survivors south of the Atlas Mountains.

The Savoyards were much more efficient than the Spaniards and sent a large army of 100,000 to stamp out resistance in their portion of Algeria and Tunis. Though successful, the pacification would drain much of their budget and here too it would not be accomplished until 1797. Also, the Savoys followed a similar policy to that of Portugal in expelling non-Christians. The Savoys had initially sought a conciliatory policy allowing Muslims to remain in the territory. However, after several ambushes of Savoy troops, the Savoy rulers decreed that non-Christians would be expelled. Perhaps the most deadly expulsion as non-Christians would be "quarantined" into cramped living quarters of cities during the plague, often with little food and water. To replace the local population, Sicilian, Sardinian, Valencian and Balearic Islander colonists were recruited. This would bring the Christian population to 120,000 by 1800, however the cost of the occupation coupled with the colonization would drain the Savoy budget, leaving the once formidable North Italian Kingdom vulnerable.

The Two Sicilies received the most sparsely populated region of North Africa, containing some 250,000 people at the time of conquest. However, the Neapolitans would remain only in control of a small coastal strip that included a few fortresses and their environs. The Christians that moved here were largely Sicilians and Maltese, and were mostly confined to Tripoli. A serious attempt conquer the territory would not begin until the 1830s.

Unlike the other European powers, the French initially sought to win over the nearly 3 million Muslims in Egypt. However, this did not prevent a rebellion against French rule from occurring and the French soon began to favour the 700,000 Coptic Christians. In Egypt, the French faced the bloodiest campaign in North Africa tying down a large French army and causing the already large French deficit to balloon. The base of operations became Alexandria, a city which by 1780 had fewer than 5,000 inhabitants, the French here would rebuild the ancient city as a showpiece city and the capital of French Egypt. Though, non-Europeans were largely excluded from the new Algeria and forced into segregated quarters.

By the time of French conquest, Syria was a half-empty land facing economic stagnation with fewer than 1,250,000 inhabitants, around one-fourth were Christian. Lebanon was comparatively prosperous and the small town of Beyrouth became the site of a new French port. Special importance was placed on protecting Jerusalem as the French sought to rebuild the Holy City.
In Syria, most resistance came from the nearly 400,000 nomads mostly living in the Eastern portion of the territory. In Damascus, a French Governor-General would be in charge of the occupation force of 35,000 troops.

In Crete, the French were initially greeted as liberators and sought to reform the civil administration. Like the Ionian Islands, Crete along with the Dodecanese Islands was now a French colony. Like in the Ionian Islands, the French left the administration in the hand of Greeks. The French also had troops in Morea, Negroponte, and Smyrna as the Russians initially were unable to provide security in the regions under their administration. The French troops would still be in these regions by 1790, however they failed to protect the Muslim inhabitants from reprisals against them by the Christian inhabitants.

The Russians would spend much of the next decade attempting to extinguish revolts in Anatolia and the Caucasus. In addition the Russians began a colonisation programme seeking to settle not only Russians, but large numbers of Germans in the new conquests, adding to the already complicated ethnic mix. Here too, various Muslim ethnic groups were persecuted, however unlike in the Portuguese, Spanish and Italian territories in North Africa, they were not officially expelled. Though throughout the Balkans many were expelled violently by the local Christian populations, this was especially true in Constantinople where not only Muslims, but Jews too faced violence.

With the fall of Constantinople in 1787, the Portuguese seized Basra soon thereafter the rest of Mesopotamia. Though unlike in Morocco, they did not seek to convert or expel the local population. This territory was largely administered as a protectorate, at least during its first few decades. Further south Aden was occupied, leaving the Al Saud to gain control of Hejaz, while proclaiming themselves Caliphs of Islam.

Initially the conquest of the Muslim lands was rejoiced in Catholic Europe, while looked on with mistrust by much of Protestant Europe. The British cabinet had initially thought about intervention, but by 1780 the French navy had surpassed the Royal Navy as the world's second naval power due to unprecedented naval spending in France. In addition, with the Savoys partaking in the invasion, the British would have found themselves without allies in the region. Finally, Britain was facing a series of minor revolts in Ireland, its colonies and in England.

 

[SavoyTruffle]

So the British really need to get to rebuilding alliances...

 

[Herr Frage]

Yikes, talk about your brutal conquests. This might make the Crusades look tame.

When the muslim world gets its act together again the hostility will be high to say the least.

 

[Viriato]

Revolution in France

Forgive me for my lack creativity, but I am following a similar course of revolution in 1789, but adding a slightly different twist to things as the revolution progresses.

A series of poor harvests in Europe began in 1782, with 1786 and 1787 being particularly bad. France was particularly hard hit, causing famine in the French countryside. In addition, the traditional source of grain imports, North Africa was no longer available due to the wars of conquest disrupting the cultivation of wheat there. In 1788 hailstorms in July destroyed most of the crops in France and this was followed by an exceptionally cold winter, followed by a period of floods. The situation now became critical.

To make matters worse, France's naval build up and war against the Ottomans had raised the budget deficit to over 4 billion livres. King Louis XVI sought to raise taxes through the various provincial parlements, however this led to nowhere forcing the government to default. Without funds to import subsidized grains from America, revolts began in the French countryside. In 1788 the king reluctantly convoked the Estates General in December. Elections were scheduled to occur in February 1789, however the Third Estate composed largely of the bourgeois demanded more representatives than the nobles or clergy.

By July 1789, France has plunged into revolution with several members of the royal family and nobility emigrating out of fear. Many headed to Turin, whilst others go to Switzerland or various German states. Throughout the summer and autumn of 1789, new laws are enacted abolishing the parlements and the privileges of the nobility and clergy as France falls to mob rule. King Louis XVI, his queen and two children are all that remain of the royal family in France and they are forced to take up residence at the Tuileries in Paris, as virtual prisoners of the new government.

Initially the revolution is lauded in both Britain and British America as it appears that France is becoming a constitutional monarchy. In the French West Indies, by 1790 the creole elites initially embrace the revolution as they begin forming their own assemblies as they believe they will now have self-rule, however they exclude free persons of colour from the assemblies, leading to revolts, particularly in Saint-Domingue.

In July 1790, a civil constitution is imposed on the clergy where they must declare an oath of loyalty to the French nation. This is an attempt to place the clergy under the government's administration. It is widely unpopular in parts of southern and western France. This leads the émigrés to begin plotting against the French government. The king's brothers are amongst the most active in this regard, with the Comte d'Artois deciding to sail for the deeply religious and conservative New France, where he will establish himself as regent of a French government-in-exile.

In September 1790, when the Comte d'Artois arrives in Quebec, he quickly convinces to governing council, led by the Bishop of Quebec to impose martial law, and appoint him as regent. He declares that his brother the King is a prisoner of the mob, as he assumes the powers of the Governor-General. New France is no longer subject to the laws of the National Assembly in France, a de facto state of civil war now exists in the French realm. However, the Canadians are largely conservative and attempts the powerful clergy in the colony fanned the counterrevolutionary flame. With France now cutoff from grains and flour from its North American colony, the food situation worsens in France.

In October 1790, Louis XVI begins to correspond with the King of Spain and the Queen of Portugal complaining about the situation in France, and appealing for military assistance. He also organizes a government-in-exile led by the Baron of Breteuil, and he begins to reach out to most of his fellow sovereigns for assistance in suppressing the revolution. In the French colonies and several of the provinces the situation is one of chaos and often open rebellion against Paris. To quell rebellions in France, troops are recalled from Morea and Anatolia in December 1790. In Damascus and Crete local assemblies are formed emulating the National Assembly in Paris. In Egypt, the French troops are confined to Alexandria and their barracks as a revolt against French rule sweeps the countryside.

In February 1791, the Queen, and the king's children are able to escape to Turin, leading to political furore in France. In May 1791, a French naval force sent from Brest to quell the rebellion in New France defects and forms part of the new royalist navy based in Louisbourg. Also in May, the naval base of Toulon revolts declaring its loyalty to the royalist government. In 15 June 1791, the king is abducted from the Tuileries by a group of young nobles called the "chevaliers de poignards". He is taken to Toulon in southern France, where counterrevolutionaries are now in control.

Meanwhile in New France, a large number of émigrés have been arriving in Québec, spreading news about the horrors in France. Among them are large numbers of nobles and military officers, who begin to organize an effective military force to protect the colony. In May 1791, they organize a military expedition to sail from Louisbourg assist the colonists in Saint Domingue to quell the rebellion there. British and Spanish assistance also arrive and the island is firmly under royalist control by October 1791 with many of the rebels being imprisoned in Cayenne. In addition, the colonists in the French Antilles revolt in favour of the royalist cause and soon declare loyalty to Quebec.

In July 1791, the government of the National Assembly declares France a republic and begins organizing a military force to suppress the rebellions in France. The King sails with the Toulon squadron for Genoa as he no longer feels safe on French territory. In Genoa he is met by the rest of the royal family, leaving émigré officers in charge of the defence of Provence. Also in July, Emperor Leopold II, the French king's brother-in-law begins circulating letters to the various European monarchs calling for action against the France. In September, various members of Europe's states attend a conference in Berlin with Louis XVI to prepare for an invasion of France. Throughout the winter of 1791-1792 the king travels around Europe seeking support, and eventually sails to Lisbon where he receives financial assistance from Queen Maria II. With this assistance, a army of émigrés is organized in Germany to invade France.

Throughout the first half of 1791 food riots erupt throughout France and in particular Paris as hyperinflation strips the purchasing power of the republic's new citizens. On 14 January the National Assembly decrees that the King of France and his brothers are traitors and are sentenced to death in absentia. Meanwhile royal and émigré land is confiscated, however this only increases the number of people emigrating as nearly 100,000 have left the country. Worried about his brother's rule of New France, the King makes the decision to sail from Lisbon with the royal family in April 1791, arriving first at Louisbourg over a month later and from there in Quebec by early June 1791.

In Quebec the King and his court took up residence at the luxurious if somewhat cramped Château Saint-Louis. By 1791, the population of New France had increased to nearly 1 million Europeans due to the large scale emigration adding over 100,000 people to the colony. During the subsequent years, Quebec would experience a building boom as its poulation rose from 40,000 to over 100,000. In addition, the neighbouring British colonies benefited from this due to the need for building materials and manufactured goods. The ports of New France were opened to the commerce of friendly nations and the colony soon began exporting grain to Europe in return for manufactured goods (particularly from England). This would allow King Louis XVI's government-in-exile to remain financially solvent.

With most of the French navy loyal to the King, it was able to send expeditions to West Africa, the Caribbean, the Mascarenes and French India, securing all of those colonies for the French crown by 1792 and depriving France of a large part of its commerce. This leads to revolts against the republic in Bordeaux, Nantes and Lorient, cities dependent on colonial trade.

In the British colonies the Duke of Kent, son of King George III had arrived in 1791 as first Governor-General and commander-in-chief of British forces in North America. He had been sent there to quell colonists' fears of another war with France. In addition, in 1791, Britain had formed a confederation of its British North American colonies allowing them a parliament in Philadelphia, as it became imperative that the colonies be able to defend themselves. However, other than defence and inter-colonial trade, most power would remain in the hands of the provincial legislatures. In 1792, the Duke of Kent travels to Quebec to confer with King Louis XVI as relations between Britain and the French republic deteriorate, due to British trade with New France.