Portuguese Southern Africa - a TL
- Thread starter Viriato
- Start date
They use the Portuguese flag, just like the rest of the Portuguese Empire. The ensign is simply the coat of arms surmounted by a crown on a white field. I imagine at this time flags are rarely flown on land, except on forts and military installations. Their primary purpose are as ensigns on ships. During times of war, battle standards are also carried into battle.
The cult of the flag, seems to be more a republican thing (OTL U.S. and France). The sovereign in this Portuguese empire is much more important as embodiment of the state.
Below is the flag that would have been used.
http://http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Flag_Portugal_(1707).svg/2000px-Flag_Portugal_(1707).svg.png
The link doesn't work because you've copied {http{colon} and the two slashes twice. Cutting it down to just the "upload..."etc worked on my browser.
Like this.
I wonder if everyone here shares Skywalker's quite dismissive and not exactly unpacked opinion of the French First Republic. As a child of the modern world I just don't get people who claim to just despise the great French Revolution. Sure, it was quite abortive in its aims--in large part because the people who made it had very diverse aims. But I think it is clear enough that there was no going back from it. There were lots of people who were against it from the get-go and who did want to go back-but had they been anything approaching a majority of French people, the whole thing would have ended pretty abruptly. The peasantry in certain regions was against it, but most of the peasants in the countryside took irrevocable steps under inspiration of the urban rebellion to overthrow the hated local seigneurs--when they became afraid the Old Regime might return in force, they stormed the local mansions and destroyed a lot of records lest they be used to put them back where they were before.
I'm with Mark Twain in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court in his protagonist's answer to those who scorn and denounce the Terror of the revolutionary years--that they forget the other Terror, of two thousand years, imposed on the low people. It is easy to see how aristocrats and monarchs of the Old Regime should be disgruntled by the ideals and accomplishments of the Revolution, but hard for me to see how most of us, children of peasants as we are, should be dismissive. Yes, they failed to establish an immediate Utopia of fraternal brotherhood and some pretty vile tendencies came out. But the nation of France was objectively under the threat of massive invasion from essentially every nation of any consequence in Europe; that explains much paranoia.
The immediate outcome was a series of dictatorships of small cliques, ending in Napoleon's. But whether he liked it or not, Napoleon was stuck with a solid revolution in human relations that, encoded in the Code Napoleon, remains the legal basis of all European continental nations to this day.
And I don't see how one can be dismissive of the fact that out of Revolutionary France, Napoleon somehow acquired the material for a military machine capable of dealing with all the crowned powers of Europe single-handed; he got, from the countryside of France, all the men he needed to steamroller everyone else. Clearly the transformation the Revolution worked on France was something that enabled Napoleon and his successors to engage the energies of his nation, and later the rulers of all European nations could as well, on a higher level than the old regime could.
Now all that is OTL; here some things are different. Just recently some questions have been raised in other threads, about whether an ideology of "scientism" could have emerged in a powerful nation (as something like it did in Mexico under Diaz, and Brazil as well) and it struck more people than me as what the Revolutionary "Cult of Reason" was trying to achieve. If France's loyal Catholics all flee, are crushed by Republican or alt-Napoleonic armies, or embrace some edition of science-worshiping atheism, then it will be harder for the revolutionary ideals to spread-but if they do, where they do will have been shifted more than OTL and will probably fight tenaciously to resist any sort of restoration.
I don't actually see that happening here; this Napoleon will probably, as OTL, reconcile post-Revolutionary France with a partial restoration of Catholicism--but on terms dictated by the war lord mostly, and with the elites of civil society remaining skeptical and cynical.
OTL Napoleon's foreign supporters, along with the Jews he generally emancipated everywhere he conquered, included the Poles--here with a reformed Kingdom of Poland having remained strong enough to survive and avoid partition, that seems much more dubious. This timeline's Polish establishment owes Napoleon nothing and the Bourbons everything.
Also, of course, the strength of Britain is reinforced by retaining their north American colonies, and of the coalition against France, redoubled by the swollen population of New France as well, plus of course the great reserves Portugal could bring to the alliance. Napoleon would do well to defend France and perhaps expand it a bit.
But OTL the power of his new mass armies, however enhanced they also were with new tactics and strategies, swept the combined powers of the Old Regimes before them on land; here he has scarcely a pretense of a navy, but I think the great coalition against him is in for a hell of a beating on land, and will soon realize that taking back France, despite all the gains made hitherto, will be far more difficult than they realize now, and the footholds they've gained will soon be lost. Being more forcefully hemmed in might simply have the effect of concentrating Napoleon's mind on consolidating his hold over what he's got, and make the eventual post-Waterloo (really, post Russian disaster) collapse of the Empire and restoration of the Bourbons briefly for a decade and a half impossible.
We should not forget that revolutionary forces are at work within the whole array of the old regimist nations allied against France at this time. The question of conflicts of interest between the European mother countries and their colonies might come to a head the more the former draw on the latter in their efforts to break Napoleon. Also, the more modernized the coalition members are, the more disgruntled the working classes of even the core metropolitan countries are. Britain OTL during the Napoleonic Wars and for quite a long time after was the scene of much lower class discontent; a surviving Napoleonic France that encodes many of the social and legal gains of the French lower classes in its basic laws might be a dangerous inspiration for a lot of British subjects; Wellington certainly thought they were OTL long after he put paid to the French emperor himself; what if he's still defiantly ruling across the Channel?
British North America 1790-1799
By 1800, the population of Britain's fourteen North American colonies had risen to 5.5 million (including 850,000 slaves). Throughout the 1790s, the war in Europe had encouraged the colonial confederation to assume greater powers over the respective "provinces". Thirteen of the colonies had joined a loose confederation centered in Philadelphia with a Grand Council composed of members selected by delegates elected by the various provincial legislatures. Initially, it was only concerned with raising funds for the Royal Navy along with the Army to provide for defence, it soon agreed to a uniform trade policy, and sought to increase its powers, leading to a series of congresses, under the auspices of the Duke of Kent (Governor-General until 1800)
With the poor harvests of the 1780s, the Tory government in Britain had abolished tariffs grains from British America, and by 1792 on all goods from British America. In addition, with the blockade of France and the Netherlands, colonial ships were now allowed to trade directly with foreign countries, under the British flag. This led to a boom in shipping, and allowed many merchants to become wealthy in cities such as Boston, Newport, New York, and Baltimore. A new merchant elite in the northern colonies would soon dominate the political scene there.
In Philadelphia, the Grand Council expanded its mandate and began to collect uniform tax collection from shipping duties, along with excise taxes on rum, tobacco, snuff, and refined sugar. In addition, the various colonies surrendered their right to issue currency, giving it to Philadelphia, which for the time being would be the British Pound Sterling. However, gold and silver coins from Portugal and Spain would remain in wide use for decades to come.
During this period, New England would remain heavily tied to the British and North Atlantic Economic system in general. Boston remained an important centre of shipping, especially in trade with the Caribbean, however it would lose its preeminence to the more centrally located New York City. Possessing and ice-free deeper harbour, New York surpassed Boston as ship tonnage increased during this decade. This also led to New York also becoming the centre of sugar refining in British America, as its Caribbean trade rose. Its central position also made it an important distribution centre for goods imported from Britain. When goods arrived in New York from Liverpool, they would be reexported to Britain's various colonies in the Americas, and during this period to New France.
Further south, in Virginia and Maryland, tobacco lost much of its economic importance during this period as more land was dedicated to the production of wheat and other grains. With the abolition of the corn laws in Britain, large quantities of wheat are produced to feed to Britain, Ireland and the British West Indies. Out of this grows the city of Baltimore, which becomes the hub of the American flour trade. The city also grows as a major ship building hub, becoming famous for its small and agile Baltimore Clippers.
Perhaps the biggest boom during this period would occur in South Carolina and Georgia. The introduction of cotton cultivation on a wide scale in America first took off here (spreading westward to French Louisiana). Wealthy planters in these colonies (and later North Carolina) exported raw cotton from Charleston in return for British luxury goods and especially manufactured textiles. In many ways, the society of these colonies with their small planter elites and large slave populations began to resemble Jamaica and Barbados rather than New York and New England.
During this time there was some small scale manufacturing in British America. The largest industries remained flour milling, sugar refining and ship building. The wool mills of New England disappeared as free trade with the mother country flooded the colonies with cheap woolen and cotton goods. Indeed, during this period Britain's exports of manufactured goods to its empire grew at an unprecedented rate.
All in all, the war provided the British subjects of the Americas with a large degree of prosperity as their merchants began to monopolize the trade with the West Indies, especially once France and the Netherlands were cutoff from the trade. Due to the growing number of experienced sailors, the Royal Navy began to recruit large numbers of experience sailors from Newfoundland and New England, many achieving the ranks of officers due to their outstanding seamanship. The British Army too recruited thousands of provincials, with 20,000 serving in Britain and Ireland by 1800 to safeguard from any French invasion. In addition the rising values of wheat, and other colonial exports brought a level of prosperity with which Americans were able to acquire more and more inexpensive manufactured goods from Britain.
By 1800, the population of Britain's fourteen North American colonies had risen to 5.5 million (including 850,000 slaves). Throughout the 1790s, the war in Europe had encouraged the colonial confederation to assume greater powers over the respective "provinces". Thirteen of the colonies had joined a loose confederation centered in Philadelphia with a Grand Council composed of members selected by delegates elected by the various provincial legislatures. Initially, it was only concerned with raising funds for the Royal Navy along with the Army to provide for defence, it soon agreed to a uniform trade policy, and sought to increase its powers, leading to a series of congresses, under the auspices of the Duke of Kent (Governor-General until 1800)
With the poor harvests of the 1780s, the Tory government in Britain had abolished tariffs grains from British America, and by 1792 on all goods from British America. In addition, with the blockade of France and the Netherlands, colonial ships were now allowed to trade directly with foreign countries, under the British flag. This led to a boom in shipping, and allowed many merchants to become wealthy in cities such as Boston, Newport, New York, and Baltimore. A new merchant elite in the northern colonies would soon dominate the political scene there.
In Philadelphia, the Grand Council expanded its mandate and began to collect uniform tax collection from shipping duties, along with excise taxes on rum, tobacco, snuff, and refined sugar. In addition, the various colonies surrendered their right to issue currency, giving it to Philadelphia, which for the time being would be the British Pound Sterling. However, gold and silver coins from Portugal and Spain would remain in wide use for decades to come.
During this period, New England would remain heavily tied to the British and North Atlantic Economic system in general. Boston remained an important centre of shipping, especially in trade with the Caribbean, however it would lose its preeminence to the more centrally located New York City. Possessing and ice-free deeper harbour, New York surpassed Boston as ship tonnage increased during this decade. This also led to New York also becoming the centre of sugar refining in British America, as its Caribbean trade rose. Its central position also made it an important distribution centre for goods imported from Britain. When goods arrived in New York from Liverpool, they would be reexported to Britain's various colonies in the Americas, and during this period to New France.
Further south, in Virginia and Maryland, tobacco lost much of its economic importance during this period as more land was dedicated to the production of wheat and other grains. With the abolition of the corn laws in Britain, large quantities of wheat are produced to feed to Britain, Ireland and the British West Indies. Out of this grows the city of Baltimore, which becomes the hub of the American flour trade. The city also grows as a major ship building hub, becoming famous for its small and agile Baltimore Clippers.
Perhaps the biggest boom during this period would occur in South Carolina and Georgia. The introduction of cotton cultivation on a wide scale in America first took off here (spreading westward to French Louisiana). Wealthy planters in these colonies (and later North Carolina) exported raw cotton from Charleston in return for British luxury goods and especially manufactured textiles. In many ways, the society of these colonies with their small planter elites and large slave populations began to resemble Jamaica and Barbados rather than New York and New England.
During this time there was some small scale manufacturing in British America. The largest industries remained flour milling, sugar refining and ship building. The wool mills of New England disappeared as free trade with the mother country flooded the colonies with cheap woolen and cotton goods. Indeed, during this period Britain's exports of manufactured goods to its empire grew at an unprecedented rate.
All in all, the war provided the British subjects of the Americas with a large degree of prosperity as their merchants began to monopolize the trade with the West Indies, especially once France and the Netherlands were cutoff from the trade. Due to the growing number of experienced sailors, the Royal Navy began to recruit large numbers of experience sailors from Newfoundland and New England, many achieving the ranks of officers due to their outstanding seamanship. The British Army too recruited thousands of provincials, with 20,000 serving in Britain and Ireland by 1800 to safeguard from any French invasion. In addition the rising values of wheat, and other colonial exports brought a level of prosperity with which Americans were able to acquire more and more inexpensive manufactured goods from Britain.
East India
What is happening in India with the various French and other European colonies? What is the status of the East India company?
What is happening in India with the various French and other European colonies? What is the status of the East India company?
War in Italy Continues
Throughout 1799-1800 the war in Italy raged on, initially the Russians sent in additional troops to assist the Austrians and Savoys, keeping the French at bay. In addition, the Russian Navy occupied Cyprus, to deny the French from assisting rebels in Syria. However, in 1801 revolts in Albania began with the assistance of French rebels, leading the Russians to withdraw their troops from Italy. This led to a series of Austrian defeats, forcing a peace treaty between Austria and France in 1802. Prussia too soon followed, leaving only Portugal, the United Kingdom and Russia and the French Royalists at war with France.
In 1799 and 1800, the French Republican government had entered into negotiations with King Louis XVI. The king had become more pragmatic and was willing to allow a constitutional monarchy of the British sort, despite opposition from many at court. However, the French victories in Italy and Germany gave Napoleon the power to install himself as the undisputed ruler France. In addition, he established a French puppet state in Northern Italy, the Cisapline Republic. Savoy Rule was now confined to Sardinia, Corsica, Dalmatia, and North Africa.
In May 1802, Portugal made peace with France, as did Russia, leaving only the British at war. This led the British to enter into negotiations with France and negotiations dragged on for a year. However, peace was finally achieved between the two countries in January 1803. The provisions of the peace treaty were soon ignored as Britain balked at withdrawing her troops from Corsica. The French for their part occupied Switzerland and established another puppet state, the Helvetic Republic. In addition, Napoleon began to assemble a grand army to invade Britain.
As part of his efforts to invade Britain, Napoleon had managed to rebuild a navy of around 68 ships by 1803. However, this force was still smaller than that of Portugal, Britain's, Spain or the French Royalists. Though not strong enough to invade Britain, Napoleon assembled an invasion fleet of Egypt in May 1804. The plans were kept secret and the fleet managed to evade the Royal Navy in the Mediterranean, sailing from Toulon to Alexandria. Landing 40,000 men Egypt in June, the Napoleon's forces quickly defeated the unprepared Royalist army stationed there. This triggered both Britain and Russia to declare war on France in August 1804.
Another event had occurred in May 1804 as well, Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor of the French, with a lavish coronation taking place. This was followed by victories in Egypt and Syria, allowing Napoleon unprecedented popularity in France. In Egypt and Syria, Napoleon had ordered his officers to not only respect the Islamic faith, but to declare Napoleon the "Protector of Islam". This led to a large number of Arabs joining the revolt against the European powers as revolts threatened an area from Algeria to Arabia.
Sweden for its part allowed the British to use its German territories to protect Hanover. This led to the Napoleon declaring war on Sweden in 1805. Meanwhile, French backed troops had overrun much of Portuguese Mesopotamia, causing Portugal to declare war on France in March 1806. One major victory did occur in February 1806 though, the defeat of the French Navy at Damietta in October 1805 by the French Royal Navy. Also in Europe, Napoleon decided to shelve plans for an invasion of Great Britain and instead destroy Austria and Russia, with plans to capture Constantinople.
Throughout 1799-1800 the war in Italy raged on, initially the Russians sent in additional troops to assist the Austrians and Savoys, keeping the French at bay. In addition, the Russian Navy occupied Cyprus, to deny the French from assisting rebels in Syria. However, in 1801 revolts in Albania began with the assistance of French rebels, leading the Russians to withdraw their troops from Italy. This led to a series of Austrian defeats, forcing a peace treaty between Austria and France in 1802. Prussia too soon followed, leaving only Portugal, the United Kingdom and Russia and the French Royalists at war with France.
In 1799 and 1800, the French Republican government had entered into negotiations with King Louis XVI. The king had become more pragmatic and was willing to allow a constitutional monarchy of the British sort, despite opposition from many at court. However, the French victories in Italy and Germany gave Napoleon the power to install himself as the undisputed ruler France. In addition, he established a French puppet state in Northern Italy, the Cisapline Republic. Savoy Rule was now confined to Sardinia, Corsica, Dalmatia, and North Africa.
In May 1802, Portugal made peace with France, as did Russia, leaving only the British at war. This led the British to enter into negotiations with France and negotiations dragged on for a year. However, peace was finally achieved between the two countries in January 1803. The provisions of the peace treaty were soon ignored as Britain balked at withdrawing her troops from Corsica. The French for their part occupied Switzerland and established another puppet state, the Helvetic Republic. In addition, Napoleon began to assemble a grand army to invade Britain.
As part of his efforts to invade Britain, Napoleon had managed to rebuild a navy of around 68 ships by 1803. However, this force was still smaller than that of Portugal, Britain's, Spain or the French Royalists. Though not strong enough to invade Britain, Napoleon assembled an invasion fleet of Egypt in May 1804. The plans were kept secret and the fleet managed to evade the Royal Navy in the Mediterranean, sailing from Toulon to Alexandria. Landing 40,000 men Egypt in June, the Napoleon's forces quickly defeated the unprepared Royalist army stationed there. This triggered both Britain and Russia to declare war on France in August 1804.
Another event had occurred in May 1804 as well, Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor of the French, with a lavish coronation taking place. This was followed by victories in Egypt and Syria, allowing Napoleon unprecedented popularity in France. In Egypt and Syria, Napoleon had ordered his officers to not only respect the Islamic faith, but to declare Napoleon the "Protector of Islam". This led to a large number of Arabs joining the revolt against the European powers as revolts threatened an area from Algeria to Arabia.
Sweden for its part allowed the British to use its German territories to protect Hanover. This led to the Napoleon declaring war on Sweden in 1805. Meanwhile, French backed troops had overrun much of Portuguese Mesopotamia, causing Portugal to declare war on France in March 1806. One major victory did occur in February 1806 though, the defeat of the French Navy at Damietta in October 1805 by the French Royal Navy. Also in Europe, Napoleon decided to shelve plans for an invasion of Great Britain and instead destroy Austria and Russia, with plans to capture Constantinople.
Napoleon Ascendant 1807
In 1806-1807, Napoleon's army's won a stunning series of victories, allowing him to cement his hold over much of Germany along with Italy. In Italy, he had invaded the Papal States along with the Kingdom of Naples, establishing himself as King of Italy, and his brother-in-law as King of Naples. Despite these victories, with the assistance of the Portuguese navy, the Bourbon King of Naples and Pope both were able to escape to Sicily and Sardinia, respectively.
In spring 1807, Napoleon turned his attention to the Iberian peninsula, with the goal of conquering Iberia and creating various puppet kingdom for more of his relatives. Firstly, he invaded Aragon and was able to defeat that small kingdom's army of 25,000. Though here too, the Habsburg King Ferdinand III, escaped to Mallorca, under the protection of the Portuguese Navy. In August 1807, Napoleon had given the Spanish King an ultimatum to join his Continental System, in doing so allying himself with the French. However, King Carlos IV knew that this would cost Spain her empire, and decided to buy time by negotiating, meanwhile preparing for war with France.
The Spanish Army of around 75,000 men was widely scattered and poorly equipped, with around 15,000 men still engaged in the defence of Algeria. Being no match for the French invading army of 100,000 (including many Swiss and Germans), the Spanish royal court fled to Cadiz and in November 1807. Soon afterwards, most of Spain was in control of French Imperial Troops. Fearing the war was over in Europe, King Carlos IV had his navy sail from Cadiz on 1 November 1807. With most of the court aboard ships, the royal party arrived at Veracruz, after stops in San Juan and Havana on January 18, 1808. From there they proceeded inland, establishing themselves in Mexico.
The Portuguese King too contemplated fleeing, and throughout the year, monasteries and palaces were stripped of their valuables and sent on ships to the safety of Fez in Morocco. The Portuguese treasury too was shipped out, as invasion seemed inevitable. However, the Portuguese army was able to muster a force of 80,000 men to defend the kingdom, in addition to these the British provided 50,000 men (mostly Americans) along with 25,000 French Royalists from New France, who had initially been earmarked for combat in Egypt.
Meanwhile, in Catalonia and Spain, spurred on the by the Catholic Church, the populace had begun a revolt and guerrilla campaign against the French. With atrocities being committed on both sides, Napoleon was forced to divert troops from the Balkans and send additional troops to quell rebellions in Spain. Meanwhile, the Spanish were able to inflict a major defeat on the French at Ciudad Real in March 1808, defeating or capturing a French force over over 25,000 men.
In 1806-1807, Napoleon's army's won a stunning series of victories, allowing him to cement his hold over much of Germany along with Italy. In Italy, he had invaded the Papal States along with the Kingdom of Naples, establishing himself as King of Italy, and his brother-in-law as King of Naples. Despite these victories, with the assistance of the Portuguese navy, the Bourbon King of Naples and Pope both were able to escape to Sicily and Sardinia, respectively.
In spring 1807, Napoleon turned his attention to the Iberian peninsula, with the goal of conquering Iberia and creating various puppet kingdom for more of his relatives. Firstly, he invaded Aragon and was able to defeat that small kingdom's army of 25,000. Though here too, the Habsburg King Ferdinand III, escaped to Mallorca, under the protection of the Portuguese Navy. In August 1807, Napoleon had given the Spanish King an ultimatum to join his Continental System, in doing so allying himself with the French. However, King Carlos IV knew that this would cost Spain her empire, and decided to buy time by negotiating, meanwhile preparing for war with France.
The Spanish Army of around 75,000 men was widely scattered and poorly equipped, with around 15,000 men still engaged in the defence of Algeria. Being no match for the French invading army of 100,000 (including many Swiss and Germans), the Spanish royal court fled to Cadiz and in November 1807. Soon afterwards, most of Spain was in control of French Imperial Troops. Fearing the war was over in Europe, King Carlos IV had his navy sail from Cadiz on 1 November 1807. With most of the court aboard ships, the royal party arrived at Veracruz, after stops in San Juan and Havana on January 18, 1808. From there they proceeded inland, establishing themselves in Mexico.
The Portuguese King too contemplated fleeing, and throughout the year, monasteries and palaces were stripped of their valuables and sent on ships to the safety of Fez in Morocco. The Portuguese treasury too was shipped out, as invasion seemed inevitable. However, the Portuguese army was able to muster a force of 80,000 men to defend the kingdom, in addition to these the British provided 50,000 men (mostly Americans) along with 25,000 French Royalists from New France, who had initially been earmarked for combat in Egypt.
Meanwhile, in Catalonia and Spain, spurred on the by the Catholic Church, the populace had begun a revolt and guerrilla campaign against the French. With atrocities being committed on both sides, Napoleon was forced to divert troops from the Balkans and send additional troops to quell rebellions in Spain. Meanwhile, the Spanish were able to inflict a major defeat on the French at Ciudad Real in March 1808, defeating or capturing a French force over over 25,000 men.
Scandinavian Union and the War in Northern Europe
In 1792, King Gustav III of Sweden had died leaving the Swedish throne to his only son Gustav IV (born in 1778). With the growing threat of Russia and France, it was decided that a Danish-Swedish alliance should be secured and Gustav III's only daughter Sophia was married Crown Prince Frederick of Denmark in 1792. The marriage produced several children, with six surviving into childhood. However, in 1808, King Gustav IV of Sweden died, leaving no children and Sophia ascended the throne as Queen Sophia of Sweden
Also in 1808, King Christian VII of Denmark died, leaving the throne to Prince Frederick, as King Frederick VI. The two spouses were now joint rulers of Sweden and Denmark. However, in 1808, Napoleon's troops decided to invade Denmark due to its refusal to join the continental system of France. The royal couple took up residence in Stockholm for their own safety, however, the formidable Swedish and Danish Navies were able to keep French forces from getting any further than Jutland.
In Northern Germany, the allies were able to raise of a force of 400,000 men, composed of Austrians, Prussians, Scandinavians, Saxons and Hanoverians to fend off nearly 300,000 French Imperial and allied forces. Though the French were able to win some important victories in 1807 and 1808, capturing much of Saxony and much of Prussia. However, the arrival of 140,000 Russian troops in 1808, would save Berlin from falling to Napoleon's men.
In 1792, King Gustav III of Sweden had died leaving the Swedish throne to his only son Gustav IV (born in 1778). With the growing threat of Russia and France, it was decided that a Danish-Swedish alliance should be secured and Gustav III's only daughter Sophia was married Crown Prince Frederick of Denmark in 1792. The marriage produced several children, with six surviving into childhood. However, in 1808, King Gustav IV of Sweden died, leaving no children and Sophia ascended the throne as Queen Sophia of Sweden
Also in 1808, King Christian VII of Denmark died, leaving the throne to Prince Frederick, as King Frederick VI. The two spouses were now joint rulers of Sweden and Denmark. However, in 1808, Napoleon's troops decided to invade Denmark due to its refusal to join the continental system of France. The royal couple took up residence in Stockholm for their own safety, however, the formidable Swedish and Danish Navies were able to keep French forces from getting any further than Jutland.
In Northern Germany, the allies were able to raise of a force of 400,000 men, composed of Austrians, Prussians, Scandinavians, Saxons and Hanoverians to fend off nearly 300,000 French Imperial and allied forces. Though the French were able to win some important victories in 1807 and 1808, capturing much of Saxony and much of Prussia. However, the arrival of 140,000 Russian troops in 1808, would save Berlin from falling to Napoleon's men.
Byzantium Reborn
After Russia's capture of Constantinople in 1787, Grand Duke Constantine, the second son of Grand Duke Paul (Later Tsar Paul I) was proclaimed Constantine XII, Emperor of the Greeks. From birth, he had been groomed as the next ruler of the reborn Byzantine Empire, and he had been educated in Greek. However, as a minor, the new empire was ruled by a Russian Viceroy, acting as regent. His new empire was soon plagued by ethno-religious strife, as large numbers of Muslims became subject to reprisals and were driven from the Balkans. By 1810, Constantinople's population alone had fallen to 350,000 (from 700,000 in 1700), almost all of its remaining inhabitants now being Greeks, with smaller numbers of Armenians. The Russians for their part fanned the flames of Greek nationalism, hoping to gain useful allies.
Despite the setbacks, in 1796, Constantine had married Juliane of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and in 1797, he was crowned Emperor Constantine XII of the Greeks and his consort Empress Juliana, in a costly and elaborate neo-Byzantine ceremony at the Hagia Sophia (restored as a Cathedral). During the year's of Prince Potempkin's governance (1787-1791), he had sought to remove all traces of the three hundred years of Ottoman Rule, to that end, mosques were demolished, and a new Great Palace was rebuilt on its historic site. The city was rebuilt in a hybrid of Baroque and neo-Byzantine styles. However, these moves only incensed the Muslim inhabitants further, causing a Holy War to be proclaimed in Eastern Anatolia. The city, and indeed the former Ottoman Empire would take decades to recover economically.
By 1804, sensing the Russian weakness, Persia too launched a war against Russia, forcing the empire was now fighting on several fronts. With few troops to spare, the Persians began advancing into the Caucasus, overrunning Georgian lands. The King of Kartli-Kakheti agreed to raise troops for the Russians in return for recognition of Georgia's independence. In addition, Tsar Paul's daughter Grand Duchess Olga, married the Georgian King's grandson. The war against Persia would only end in 1810 however.
Further west, a rebellion amongst the Albanians threatened Montenegro with that principality requesting to join the Greek Empire in 1806. Meanwhile, an Islamic fundamentalist movement based in Mecca began to send warriors to fight the Christian powers in Anatolia, Arabia and North Africa. The uprisings in Eastern Anatolia, led the Russians to organize an army of Armenians to deal with the insurgency. One relatively peaceful region during this period were the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, as these were joined in 1800 as a kingdom for the young Grand Duke Michael (born in 1798). Chosen as the new "King of Romania" the new kingdom would remain under the rule of Russian viceroy during the king's infancy.
Napoleon began to see Russia as a paper tiger unable to defend itself, with rebellions and wars on its borders. Assisting the Islamic movements, he hoped to exploit Russia's weakness with a two pronged invasion. One from the North through Germany and Poland that would capture Moscow, and another to capture Constantinople. He had already sent a force to Egypt and Syria where they were able to raise large numbers of Arab troops, where they were able pin down over 100,000 Russian soldiers.
To that end, the Grand Armée was diverted from its initial plan to invade Britain. An invasion of Russian lands was planned instead. In March 1807, Napoleon sent an unprecedented 550,000 Imperial troops to invade Russia, with 350,000 sent to overrun Hungary and Dalmatia with the goal of capturing Constantinople, here establishing the Kingdom of Croatia for his brother-in-law. However, coupled with his wars in Iberia, Germany and the Balkans, French troops were now badly overstretched.
After Russia's capture of Constantinople in 1787, Grand Duke Constantine, the second son of Grand Duke Paul (Later Tsar Paul I) was proclaimed Constantine XII, Emperor of the Greeks. From birth, he had been groomed as the next ruler of the reborn Byzantine Empire, and he had been educated in Greek. However, as a minor, the new empire was ruled by a Russian Viceroy, acting as regent. His new empire was soon plagued by ethno-religious strife, as large numbers of Muslims became subject to reprisals and were driven from the Balkans. By 1810, Constantinople's population alone had fallen to 350,000 (from 700,000 in 1700), almost all of its remaining inhabitants now being Greeks, with smaller numbers of Armenians. The Russians for their part fanned the flames of Greek nationalism, hoping to gain useful allies.
Despite the setbacks, in 1796, Constantine had married Juliane of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and in 1797, he was crowned Emperor Constantine XII of the Greeks and his consort Empress Juliana, in a costly and elaborate neo-Byzantine ceremony at the Hagia Sophia (restored as a Cathedral). During the year's of Prince Potempkin's governance (1787-1791), he had sought to remove all traces of the three hundred years of Ottoman Rule, to that end, mosques were demolished, and a new Great Palace was rebuilt on its historic site. The city was rebuilt in a hybrid of Baroque and neo-Byzantine styles. However, these moves only incensed the Muslim inhabitants further, causing a Holy War to be proclaimed in Eastern Anatolia. The city, and indeed the former Ottoman Empire would take decades to recover economically.
By 1804, sensing the Russian weakness, Persia too launched a war against Russia, forcing the empire was now fighting on several fronts. With few troops to spare, the Persians began advancing into the Caucasus, overrunning Georgian lands. The King of Kartli-Kakheti agreed to raise troops for the Russians in return for recognition of Georgia's independence. In addition, Tsar Paul's daughter Grand Duchess Olga, married the Georgian King's grandson. The war against Persia would only end in 1810 however.
Further west, a rebellion amongst the Albanians threatened Montenegro with that principality requesting to join the Greek Empire in 1806. Meanwhile, an Islamic fundamentalist movement based in Mecca began to send warriors to fight the Christian powers in Anatolia, Arabia and North Africa. The uprisings in Eastern Anatolia, led the Russians to organize an army of Armenians to deal with the insurgency. One relatively peaceful region during this period were the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, as these were joined in 1800 as a kingdom for the young Grand Duke Michael (born in 1798). Chosen as the new "King of Romania" the new kingdom would remain under the rule of Russian viceroy during the king's infancy.
Napoleon began to see Russia as a paper tiger unable to defend itself, with rebellions and wars on its borders. Assisting the Islamic movements, he hoped to exploit Russia's weakness with a two pronged invasion. One from the North through Germany and Poland that would capture Moscow, and another to capture Constantinople. He had already sent a force to Egypt and Syria where they were able to raise large numbers of Arab troops, where they were able pin down over 100,000 Russian soldiers.
To that end, the Grand Armée was diverted from its initial plan to invade Britain. An invasion of Russian lands was planned instead. In March 1807, Napoleon sent an unprecedented 550,000 Imperial troops to invade Russia, with 350,000 sent to overrun Hungary and Dalmatia with the goal of capturing Constantinople, here establishing the Kingdom of Croatia for his brother-in-law. However, coupled with his wars in Iberia, Germany and the Balkans, French troops were now badly overstretched.
War in Iberia, Scandinavia and Germany
Throughout 1808 and 1809, victories by Spanish and Aragonese irregular forces against the French Imperial forces continued. Guerrilla bands ambushed French camps and convoys, taking a heavy toll on French morale. In addition, the arrival of 75,000 men from British and French North America helped Iberian forces achieve a numerical superiority that would prove decisive.
A major victory by a joint French-Royalist and British force against French Imperial forces at Évora in May 1808, halted the French Imperial advance towards Lisbon. Meanwhile, the Royal Navy was supplying Spanish and Aragonese rebels with arms and munitions through port cities in rebel hands along the coast. Napoleon sent an additional 50,000 troops to the Iberian Peninsula in 1809, however the campaign soon became a quagmire. Stuck in the Balkans and Germany, Napoleon's situation became desperate. In September 1809, Barcelona was recaptured by an Anglo-American force, causing a general uprising in Aragon against Napoleon's troops.
By early 1809, French troops had evacuated Portugal, and over 20,000 alone were stationed in Madrid. The British colonial forces along with the French Royalists managed to recapture Northern Spain including Spanish Navarre as they sought to cut supplies from Napoleon's troops. However, by the spring of 1809, the French troops had managed to turn the tide and had pushed into Galicia. It soon became clear that it would be a while before Napoleon's men were fully expelled from Spain.
Meanwhile in 1809 Scandinavia, a Swedish and Danish Army went on the offensive, driving the French Imperial troops from Jutland and all of Schleswig-Holstein. In August 1809, an army of 300,000 men composed of Prussians, Russians, Polish and Saxon forces achieved a decisive victory over the French at Weimar. With this blow, many German troops began abandoning Napoleon, and some French troops even switch sides, joining the growing French Royalist Army.
Throughout 1808 and 1809, victories by Spanish and Aragonese irregular forces against the French Imperial forces continued. Guerrilla bands ambushed French camps and convoys, taking a heavy toll on French morale. In addition, the arrival of 75,000 men from British and French North America helped Iberian forces achieve a numerical superiority that would prove decisive.
A major victory by a joint French-Royalist and British force against French Imperial forces at Évora in May 1808, halted the French Imperial advance towards Lisbon. Meanwhile, the Royal Navy was supplying Spanish and Aragonese rebels with arms and munitions through port cities in rebel hands along the coast. Napoleon sent an additional 50,000 troops to the Iberian Peninsula in 1809, however the campaign soon became a quagmire. Stuck in the Balkans and Germany, Napoleon's situation became desperate. In September 1809, Barcelona was recaptured by an Anglo-American force, causing a general uprising in Aragon against Napoleon's troops.
By early 1809, French troops had evacuated Portugal, and over 20,000 alone were stationed in Madrid. The British colonial forces along with the French Royalists managed to recapture Northern Spain including Spanish Navarre as they sought to cut supplies from Napoleon's troops. However, by the spring of 1809, the French troops had managed to turn the tide and had pushed into Galicia. It soon became clear that it would be a while before Napoleon's men were fully expelled from Spain.
Meanwhile in 1809 Scandinavia, a Swedish and Danish Army went on the offensive, driving the French Imperial troops from Jutland and all of Schleswig-Holstein. In August 1809, an army of 300,000 men composed of Prussians, Russians, Polish and Saxon forces achieved a decisive victory over the French at Weimar. With this blow, many German troops began abandoning Napoleon, and some French troops even switch sides, joining the growing French Royalist Army.
