I guess its a little mistake
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Earlier Permanent Settlement of New France
- Thread starter Viriato
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I guess its a little mistake
But I really like your time line, consider me subscribe !
If I had to guess, I would say a "fleeing to Brazil" situation might be likely, with the Royal Family taking up residence in Quebec City - if a revolution anything like IOTL takes place.
Spain enters the War
Impressed by the French victories against the British in America and the Mediterranean, King Ferdinand VI begins mulling entering the war against Great Britain. The French ambassador promised Minorca to Spain in return for Spanish assistance, and the return of the island had been one of Spain's primary goals.
Following the War of Jenkins Ear in 1748, King Ferdinand VI presided over a period of reform designed to strengthen Spain's navy and finances. In 1752, Spain signed the Treaty of Aranjuez with Austria, relinquishing dynastic claims in Italy once and for all. Free of dynastic entanglements on the continent, Spain was finally able to focus on strengthening her vast American empire. To that end, the Spanish government had turned its attention to reform and strengthening the Spanish navy. The result was that by 1757, Spain had a formidable force of 56 ships of the line, making the Spanish navy the third largest in the world, just behind Britain and France.
Throughout the decade, conflict with the British had been smoldering, due to British logging operations in Central America and the seizures of Spanish merchant ships. In 1754, the pro-French Marquis de Ensenada who headed the ministries of war, marine and the Indies, encouraged colonial governors to retaliate against British loggers in Labouring Creeek. A Spanish expedition was sent by the Governor of the Yucatan. However, the issue was resolved diplomatically, as Britain hoped to maintain Spanish neutrality.
By 1756, the situation had changed dramatically in France's favour and negotiations between Paris and Madrid throughout the winter of 1756-1757. On 15 April 1757, Spain formally declared war of Great Britain, the pretext being British incursions into Spanish central America.
To that end, the government of New Spain had been informed to remove British settlements from Central America. These operations had begun in March, and within a few weeks the British had been expelled.
On 20 April 1757 a French fleet of 14 ships of the line arrived at Cadiz from Toulon, along with a force of 8,000 men and several frigates to begin planning a joint assault on Gibraltar.
In 1757, Gibraltar is defended by a small garrison of fewer than 3,000 men defended the colony with a small fleet. Fearing Spanish entry into the war, there had been plans to reinforce the colony with two companies of artillery, however these were only meant to arrive in September. Also, a fleet of 12 British ships of the line were based in Gibraltar.
To begin the assault, throughout April and May, a series of fortifications and batteries were constructed by French engineers around Gibraltar, and a naval force surrounded the peninsula. The first Spanish assault on 14 May was repulsed by the British forces, with over 300 Spanish casualties. A relief force was assembled in Portsmouth with 14 more ships of the line, however the shortage of men delayed it sailing until June. Meanwhile, a barrage of constant artillery fire continued to rain down on Gibraltar.
Short on provisions, the discontent of the British soldiers in Gibraltar reached a boiling point by early June. A plot involving hundreds of regulars in two regiments had planned to seize the military chest of the colony from their officers and secure their escape by surrendering the fortress to the Spaniards. Over 700 men were involved and punished, further reducing the defences of the colony.
On 14 June 1757 a fleet of 34 French and Spanish ships of the line along with 8 frigates began firing on the British fortifications located between the old mole and new mole. British ships began firing back, and 4 Spanish ships were badly damaged with 2 French were rendered defenseless. Meanwhile, heavy artillery from La Linea began to shell the northern defences of the colony and the town itself.
Having lost over 500 men and with a force of fewer than 1,500 remaining, the Earl of Home surrender the fort to the Spanish forces on 17 June 1757. The colony was surrendered with honours of war and the remaining British fleet departed to defend the British Isles.
The reaction in Britain was one of immediate shock. With few soldiers to spare, Pitt would have a difficult time to reinforce what remained of British America. Therefore, most of the British fleet was recalled to defend the British Isles from a Franco-Spanish invasion.
In the meantime, the Spanish begin preparing an attack on Jamaica, and a joint Franco-Spanish invasion of Great Britain, to place the Stuarts on the British throne.
View of the Battle of Gibraltar 1757
Impressed by the French victories against the British in America and the Mediterranean, King Ferdinand VI begins mulling entering the war against Great Britain. The French ambassador promised Minorca to Spain in return for Spanish assistance, and the return of the island had been one of Spain's primary goals.
Following the War of Jenkins Ear in 1748, King Ferdinand VI presided over a period of reform designed to strengthen Spain's navy and finances. In 1752, Spain signed the Treaty of Aranjuez with Austria, relinquishing dynastic claims in Italy once and for all. Free of dynastic entanglements on the continent, Spain was finally able to focus on strengthening her vast American empire. To that end, the Spanish government had turned its attention to reform and strengthening the Spanish navy. The result was that by 1757, Spain had a formidable force of 56 ships of the line, making the Spanish navy the third largest in the world, just behind Britain and France.
Throughout the decade, conflict with the British had been smoldering, due to British logging operations in Central America and the seizures of Spanish merchant ships. In 1754, the pro-French Marquis de Ensenada who headed the ministries of war, marine and the Indies, encouraged colonial governors to retaliate against British loggers in Labouring Creeek. A Spanish expedition was sent by the Governor of the Yucatan. However, the issue was resolved diplomatically, as Britain hoped to maintain Spanish neutrality.
By 1756, the situation had changed dramatically in France's favour and negotiations between Paris and Madrid throughout the winter of 1756-1757. On 15 April 1757, Spain formally declared war of Great Britain, the pretext being British incursions into Spanish central America.
To that end, the government of New Spain had been informed to remove British settlements from Central America. These operations had begun in March, and within a few weeks the British had been expelled.
On 20 April 1757 a French fleet of 14 ships of the line arrived at Cadiz from Toulon, along with a force of 8,000 men and several frigates to begin planning a joint assault on Gibraltar.
In 1757, Gibraltar is defended by a small garrison of fewer than 3,000 men defended the colony with a small fleet. Fearing Spanish entry into the war, there had been plans to reinforce the colony with two companies of artillery, however these were only meant to arrive in September. Also, a fleet of 12 British ships of the line were based in Gibraltar.
To begin the assault, throughout April and May, a series of fortifications and batteries were constructed by French engineers around Gibraltar, and a naval force surrounded the peninsula. The first Spanish assault on 14 May was repulsed by the British forces, with over 300 Spanish casualties. A relief force was assembled in Portsmouth with 14 more ships of the line, however the shortage of men delayed it sailing until June. Meanwhile, a barrage of constant artillery fire continued to rain down on Gibraltar.
Short on provisions, the discontent of the British soldiers in Gibraltar reached a boiling point by early June. A plot involving hundreds of regulars in two regiments had planned to seize the military chest of the colony from their officers and secure their escape by surrendering the fortress to the Spaniards. Over 700 men were involved and punished, further reducing the defences of the colony.
On 14 June 1757 a fleet of 34 French and Spanish ships of the line along with 8 frigates began firing on the British fortifications located between the old mole and new mole. British ships began firing back, and 4 Spanish ships were badly damaged with 2 French were rendered defenseless. Meanwhile, heavy artillery from La Linea began to shell the northern defences of the colony and the town itself.
Having lost over 500 men and with a force of fewer than 1,500 remaining, the Earl of Home surrender the fort to the Spanish forces on 17 June 1757. The colony was surrendered with honours of war and the remaining British fleet departed to defend the British Isles.
The reaction in Britain was one of immediate shock. With few soldiers to spare, Pitt would have a difficult time to reinforce what remained of British America. Therefore, most of the British fleet was recalled to defend the British Isles from a Franco-Spanish invasion.
In the meantime, the Spanish begin preparing an attack on Jamaica, and a joint Franco-Spanish invasion of Great Britain, to place the Stuarts on the British throne.
View of the Battle of Gibraltar 1757
West Indies Campagin
In 1755-1756 the French had proceeded to occupy the neutral islands of Dominica, St. Vincent, and Tobago. Sending a large naval force to the West Indies in 1755, the French were able to keep the numerically inferior Royal Navy ships at bay.
With the Royal Navy's situation deteriorating in America and Europe since the beginning of the war, the West Indies lobby in the House of Commons demanded action to protect its interests. Pitt also realized that this could be an opportunity to attack the French islands as a diversionary tactic. The cabinet debated whether or not to invade Saint-Domingue, attack New Orleans, or go after the French Antilles. The valuable French islands in the Antilles were chosen as the perfect target.
A fleet of 24 ships of the line was sent to Antigua in April 1757 with 4,000 men. They promptly occupied Saint Lucia, an island that had been captured and later returned by the British to the French in exchange for Madras in 1748. An attempted invasion of Martinique ended in failure, however the island of Guadeloupe was captured after a two-month siege in August. Dominica proved to be an easier target, and this island was taken in June.
Meanwhile, Spanish forces had quickly taken over the Bahamas in May, with their fewer than 2,500 inhabitants. However, the Spaniards preferred to use their navy to protect Cuba and Florida. In June, the Spanish were able to defeat a British force of 5 ships near Havana.
In October 1757 a battle outside of Cap François (Français), Saint-Domingue, between British and French naval forces, saw the Royal Navy inflict heavy causalities on a French force being used to convoy merchant ships to France.
Below the failed British invasion of Saint-Pierre in Martinique
In 1755-1756 the French had proceeded to occupy the neutral islands of Dominica, St. Vincent, and Tobago. Sending a large naval force to the West Indies in 1755, the French were able to keep the numerically inferior Royal Navy ships at bay.
With the Royal Navy's situation deteriorating in America and Europe since the beginning of the war, the West Indies lobby in the House of Commons demanded action to protect its interests. Pitt also realized that this could be an opportunity to attack the French islands as a diversionary tactic. The cabinet debated whether or not to invade Saint-Domingue, attack New Orleans, or go after the French Antilles. The valuable French islands in the Antilles were chosen as the perfect target.
A fleet of 24 ships of the line was sent to Antigua in April 1757 with 4,000 men. They promptly occupied Saint Lucia, an island that had been captured and later returned by the British to the French in exchange for Madras in 1748. An attempted invasion of Martinique ended in failure, however the island of Guadeloupe was captured after a two-month siege in August. Dominica proved to be an easier target, and this island was taken in June.
Meanwhile, Spanish forces had quickly taken over the Bahamas in May, with their fewer than 2,500 inhabitants. However, the Spaniards preferred to use their navy to protect Cuba and Florida. In June, the Spanish were able to defeat a British force of 5 ships near Havana.
In October 1757 a battle outside of Cap François (Français), Saint-Domingue, between British and French naval forces, saw the Royal Navy inflict heavy causalities on a French force being used to convoy merchant ships to France.
Below the failed British invasion of Saint-Pierre in Martinique
With Albany firmly under French control, the French forces under Montcalm wintered there in 1757 using a chain of forts northward to Québec to resupply their new base of operations. In the meantime after hearing of the French victories, Indians had been rushing to join the French, even from west of the Mississippi. From Pays d'en Haut over 8,000 arrived, and they began attacking settlements in Western Connecticut throughout the winter. Many came to loot settlements, and this caused some unease among the French commanders who believed they should keep the rules of engagement civil. Conversely, smallpox would be carried back to remote corners of North America by returning Indian soldiers, as several outbreaks beginning in 1757 would continue until 1765.
Throughout the winter of 1756-1757, a group of British settlers from the occupied colonies pleaded with parliament for more troops, among these was Benjamin Franklin. In May, 5,500 more British regulars arrived in New York and began to fortify Manhattan along with western Connecticut. Pitt had attempted to provide 8,000, however Parliament would only allow a maximum of 19,000 British troops to serve outside of Great Britain. Also, a large British fleet was prepared for America, consisting of 24 ships of the line. The hope was to establish British naval supremacy in North America and limit more troops and material from entering New France.
In May the first major battle between French occurred in present-day Westchester County. Though British forces managed to push back the French, they lost 2,000 men in the battle. By June another 5,500 men from France had arrived in Québec making the total French force outside of New York one of around 40,000 men. The British were outnumbered 2 to 1 and on 17 June at Marble Hill, the French were able to breach the British defences and began pouring into Manhattan. After a fierce battle in Harlem Heights Loudon's forces surrendered New York to Montcalm. Only southern New England east of the Connecticut River held out under General James Abercromby.
Earlier in the year, a plan to attack and capture France's fortress at Louisbourg had been devised in England during the spring of 1757. Louisbourg had long been a base from which French privateers could harass British merchants in North America, also it was the primary naval base and the key to Québec. Admiral Francis Holbourne was sent with a fleet of 20 ships of the line to deliver supplies in Boston and gather a force to attack Louisbourg. After many delays the fleet finally arrived in Boston in late July. Having learned of New York's fall, the plan to capture Louisbourg was shelved. However, Holbourne still thought he could destroy much of the French fleet in Louisbourg.
On 20 August 1757, Holbourne's fleet reached the outskirts of Louisbourg harbour. To his surprise though, the French had reinforced Louisbourg with two squadrons of 24 ships commanded by Admiral de La Motte. Holbourne attempted repeatedly to coax the French fleet out of Louisbourg harbour and into battle, but to no avail. This continued for one month until on the 24 September 1757, when a hurricane swept the British fleet against the rocks leaving every ship being damaged, most without masts. The French fleet, moored in the safety of the harbour escaped largely unscathed. In response de La Motte pursued the scattered and weather beaten British fleet, capturing every single British ship.
Throughout the winter of 1756-1757, a group of British settlers from the occupied colonies pleaded with parliament for more troops, among these was Benjamin Franklin. In May, 5,500 more British regulars arrived in New York and began to fortify Manhattan along with western Connecticut. Pitt had attempted to provide 8,000, however Parliament would only allow a maximum of 19,000 British troops to serve outside of Great Britain. Also, a large British fleet was prepared for America, consisting of 24 ships of the line. The hope was to establish British naval supremacy in North America and limit more troops and material from entering New France.
In May the first major battle between French occurred in present-day Westchester County. Though British forces managed to push back the French, they lost 2,000 men in the battle. By June another 5,500 men from France had arrived in Québec making the total French force outside of New York one of around 40,000 men. The British were outnumbered 2 to 1 and on 17 June at Marble Hill, the French were able to breach the British defences and began pouring into Manhattan. After a fierce battle in Harlem Heights Loudon's forces surrendered New York to Montcalm. Only southern New England east of the Connecticut River held out under General James Abercromby.
Earlier in the year, a plan to attack and capture France's fortress at Louisbourg had been devised in England during the spring of 1757. Louisbourg had long been a base from which French privateers could harass British merchants in North America, also it was the primary naval base and the key to Québec. Admiral Francis Holbourne was sent with a fleet of 20 ships of the line to deliver supplies in Boston and gather a force to attack Louisbourg. After many delays the fleet finally arrived in Boston in late July. Having learned of New York's fall, the plan to capture Louisbourg was shelved. However, Holbourne still thought he could destroy much of the French fleet in Louisbourg.
On 20 August 1757, Holbourne's fleet reached the outskirts of Louisbourg harbour. To his surprise though, the French had reinforced Louisbourg with two squadrons of 24 ships commanded by Admiral de La Motte. Holbourne attempted repeatedly to coax the French fleet out of Louisbourg harbour and into battle, but to no avail. This continued for one month until on the 24 September 1757, when a hurricane swept the British fleet against the rocks leaving every ship being damaged, most without masts. The French fleet, moored in the safety of the harbour escaped largely unscathed. In response de La Motte pursued the scattered and weather beaten British fleet, capturing every single British ship.
Hi!
I like the Timeline!
I hope France will come out as the bigger winner (with territories both in Europe and overseas)! Still, many and important reforms are badly needed in France to fix the budget issue. By the way, how France stays financially and economically ?
Please continue!
PS: Hope maps of Europe, America and India
I like the Timeline!
I hope France will come out as the bigger winner (with territories both in Europe and overseas)! Still, many and important reforms are badly needed in France to fix the budget issue. By the way, how France stays financially and economically ?
Please continue!
PS: Hope maps of Europe, America and India
Britain did do very poorly at the beginning of the Seven Years War, so I tried to imagine if they were up against 2 million French in New France vs only 60,000. However, Britain will recover and there will be some surprises before the end of the 18th century comes to a close.
The French and Spanish began formulating a plan to invade Great Britain, however the French wanted to overrun Hanover first. After the initial meetings with Prince Charles Stuart, the French were less than impressed. Hoping to make the British apprehensive, a Spanish squadron sailed to Le Havre and another to Brest. Around 10,000 Spanish troops were ferried to these ports where they were utilized to defend the coast, freeing up French troops for the invasion of Hanover.
In June 1757, a large French army of over 100,000 men advanced towards Hanover with the first skirmishes taking place on 3 May. On 2 July, the French were able to capture the strategic port of Emden, cutting off Hanover from British supplies, and shortly thereafter Cassel was taken. Hanover's forces were commanded by King George II's youngest son, the Duke of Cumberland. Badly outnumbered and cutoff from supplies, he retreated with his remaining troops to the town of Stade, after his defeat at the Battle of Hastenbeck. There he surrendered to the French and signed the Convention of Kloserzeven in September. The French now turned their attentions towards Prussia.
Also in September, the Royal Navy had led a raid on Rochefort, hoping to divert French troops away from Germany. Pitt had planned the raid hoping to satisfy the British public, especially after the defeats in America. A force of 8,000 troops was assembled, and arrived off the coast of Rochefort in late September. Underestimating French forces in the region, Lieutenant-General John Mordaunt decided to cancel the planned invasion as too risky, instead sailing back for Britain on 6 October. Pitt was largely blamed for the failure and a court-martial of Mordaunt was ordered. The expedition had not only been a military failure, but it cost £1 million. On 11 October 1757, upon his arrival at court, the Duke of Cumberland was greeted by his father the King "here is my son who has ruined me and disgraced himself".
Below an English from 1757 political cartoon, showing France's conquests.
In June 1757, a large French army of over 100,000 men advanced towards Hanover with the first skirmishes taking place on 3 May. On 2 July, the French were able to capture the strategic port of Emden, cutting off Hanover from British supplies, and shortly thereafter Cassel was taken. Hanover's forces were commanded by King George II's youngest son, the Duke of Cumberland. Badly outnumbered and cutoff from supplies, he retreated with his remaining troops to the town of Stade, after his defeat at the Battle of Hastenbeck. There he surrendered to the French and signed the Convention of Kloserzeven in September. The French now turned their attentions towards Prussia.
Also in September, the Royal Navy had led a raid on Rochefort, hoping to divert French troops away from Germany. Pitt had planned the raid hoping to satisfy the British public, especially after the defeats in America. A force of 8,000 troops was assembled, and arrived off the coast of Rochefort in late September. Underestimating French forces in the region, Lieutenant-General John Mordaunt decided to cancel the planned invasion as too risky, instead sailing back for Britain on 6 October. Pitt was largely blamed for the failure and a court-martial of Mordaunt was ordered. The expedition had not only been a military failure, but it cost £1 million. On 11 October 1757, upon his arrival at court, the Duke of Cumberland was greeted by his father the King "here is my son who has ruined me and disgraced himself".
Below an English from 1757 political cartoon, showing France's conquests.
France Stabs Austria in the Back
In the east, Russia had declared war on Prussia in January 1757, occupying much of East Prussia. France had signed two treaties with Austria, the second being agreed upon in 1 May, 1757 at Versailles. In the treaty, France agreed to send troops to defend Austria and subsidise Austrian troops against Prussia. However, the Austrians did not want the French to occupy Hanover, fearing that France would be too powerful, at the same time, the French did not want Austria retaking Silesia.
In October 1757, upon learning about France's triumphs in Germany, Empress Maria Theresa insisted that the French troops leave Hanover and focus on attacking Prussia instead. Kaunitz for his part stated that 24,000 French troops were needed in Bohemia immediately to alleviate the stalemate there. The French for their part were wary of committing any more force to defend Austria. Meanwhile, annoyed with the lack of British assistance, the Prussians were making overtures to Versailles for a separate peace.
On 13 October 1757, a secret agreement was concluded between France and Prussia. The French who were already in control of the ports of Ostend and Nieuport would occupy the rest of the Austrian Netherlands, quickly overtaking the Austrian force of 12,000. The French for their part withdrew from Hanover, Hesse-Cassel and occupied Prussian lands. This would leave Prussia free to deal with the Russians and Austrians.
When learning of the French actions, Spain was upset, and began recalling its fleet to Spanish ports, meanwhile the Spaniards began to negotiate a separate peace with the British. The Spaniards were fearful of the British rebuilding their fleet and attacking Spanish colonies the following year.
Meanwhile in America, the forces of Abercromby and Amherst surrendered Boston to the French on 18 October, after a bloody battle costing 2,000 French lives and over 3,000 British. The remnants of a British force retreated to Block Island and then to England. Britain's empire in North America was now firmly under French control.
King George II had begun to press his government to come to a peace agreement, and he especially wanted the return of Hanover. The British had begun to negotiate the possibility of an alliance with the Austrians, however millions of pounds had already been expended in Germany and Pitt was against spending more money on the war (in Europe at least). On 14 December Pitt said he would not send "a drop of blood to the Elbe, to be lost in that ocean of gore". Peace negotiations would commence with a formal treaty being signed in February 1758.
In the east, Russia had declared war on Prussia in January 1757, occupying much of East Prussia. France had signed two treaties with Austria, the second being agreed upon in 1 May, 1757 at Versailles. In the treaty, France agreed to send troops to defend Austria and subsidise Austrian troops against Prussia. However, the Austrians did not want the French to occupy Hanover, fearing that France would be too powerful, at the same time, the French did not want Austria retaking Silesia.
In October 1757, upon learning about France's triumphs in Germany, Empress Maria Theresa insisted that the French troops leave Hanover and focus on attacking Prussia instead. Kaunitz for his part stated that 24,000 French troops were needed in Bohemia immediately to alleviate the stalemate there. The French for their part were wary of committing any more force to defend Austria. Meanwhile, annoyed with the lack of British assistance, the Prussians were making overtures to Versailles for a separate peace.
On 13 October 1757, a secret agreement was concluded between France and Prussia. The French who were already in control of the ports of Ostend and Nieuport would occupy the rest of the Austrian Netherlands, quickly overtaking the Austrian force of 12,000. The French for their part withdrew from Hanover, Hesse-Cassel and occupied Prussian lands. This would leave Prussia free to deal with the Russians and Austrians.
When learning of the French actions, Spain was upset, and began recalling its fleet to Spanish ports, meanwhile the Spaniards began to negotiate a separate peace with the British. The Spaniards were fearful of the British rebuilding their fleet and attacking Spanish colonies the following year.
Meanwhile in America, the forces of Abercromby and Amherst surrendered Boston to the French on 18 October, after a bloody battle costing 2,000 French lives and over 3,000 British. The remnants of a British force retreated to Block Island and then to England. Britain's empire in North America was now firmly under French control.
King George II had begun to press his government to come to a peace agreement, and he especially wanted the return of Hanover. The British had begun to negotiate the possibility of an alliance with the Austrians, however millions of pounds had already been expended in Germany and Pitt was against spending more money on the war (in Europe at least). On 14 December Pitt said he would not send "a drop of blood to the Elbe, to be lost in that ocean of gore". Peace negotiations would commence with a formal treaty being signed in February 1758.
Treaty of Paris 1758
On 1 February 1758 the Treaty of Paris is ratified by France, Great Britain, and Spain.
France was eager for the return of the valuable islands of the Antilles, and the king made that one of his primary goals. The island of Guadeloupe which produced over 140 million livres worth of sugar each year, was an especially valuable prize. In return, France willing to return Britain's less valuable colonies in North America, as these were seen to hold little value, also the cost of garrisoning the occupation forces was draining France's treasury.
Therefore, Britain recognized Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent, Tobago, and the Grenadines as French, and forfeited any claim to those islands. In parliament the West Indies lobby pressed for the return of these islands to France as they often produced sugar and molasses at lower costs than the British islands. Also, an American lobby had arisen in the Commons, wanting to integrate the colonies as a part of Great Britain.
France would withdraw its forces from Britain's thirteen colonies in North America, in return Britain would withdraw all claims to the lands west of the Appalachian Mountains, the Great Lakes or Lac Saint-Sacrement (Lake George). The Iroquois lands in New York would be partitioned with tribes loyal to the French, remaining in French territory. The French dictated the boundaries, and surprisingly did not make too many adjustments.
The Spanish would keep Gibraltar and Minorca, meanwhile withdrawing from the Bahamas. Also, the asiento was dead for good. Finally, the British agreed to surrender any claims to lands in central America.
In Europe, France kept the Austrian Netherlands and gained the right to fortify Dunkirk. In return, the French withdrew from Hanover and Hesse Cassel.
In India, the British returned Chandernagore to the French and the French ended the siege of Madras. Here, the two powers agreed to return to the ante-bellum status quo laid down by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748.
On 1 February 1758 the Treaty of Paris is ratified by France, Great Britain, and Spain.
France was eager for the return of the valuable islands of the Antilles, and the king made that one of his primary goals. The island of Guadeloupe which produced over 140 million livres worth of sugar each year, was an especially valuable prize. In return, France willing to return Britain's less valuable colonies in North America, as these were seen to hold little value, also the cost of garrisoning the occupation forces was draining France's treasury.
Therefore, Britain recognized Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent, Tobago, and the Grenadines as French, and forfeited any claim to those islands. In parliament the West Indies lobby pressed for the return of these islands to France as they often produced sugar and molasses at lower costs than the British islands. Also, an American lobby had arisen in the Commons, wanting to integrate the colonies as a part of Great Britain.
France would withdraw its forces from Britain's thirteen colonies in North America, in return Britain would withdraw all claims to the lands west of the Appalachian Mountains, the Great Lakes or Lac Saint-Sacrement (Lake George). The Iroquois lands in New York would be partitioned with tribes loyal to the French, remaining in French territory. The French dictated the boundaries, and surprisingly did not make too many adjustments.
The Spanish would keep Gibraltar and Minorca, meanwhile withdrawing from the Bahamas. Also, the asiento was dead for good. Finally, the British agreed to surrender any claims to lands in central America.
In Europe, France kept the Austrian Netherlands and gained the right to fortify Dunkirk. In return, the French withdrew from Hanover and Hesse Cassel.
In India, the British returned Chandernagore to the French and the French ended the siege of Madras. Here, the two powers agreed to return to the ante-bellum status quo laid down by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748.
Aftermath of the War in Britain
For Britain, the war had cost millions of pounds and seemingly achieved nothing. Britain's public debt had skyrocketed to £137 million (from £8 million in 1754). The colonies in North America were unprepared for war, mostly due to infighting between them and the inability to finance any sort of defences. It was obvious that reform was needed all around.
The Royal Navy had been lost much of its strength, especially after the disaster at Louisbourg in 1757 where 24 ships were lost. In 1758, the royal navy launched 8 new ships of the line, bringing the fleet's strength up to 80 ships of the line. However, Britain was now simply on par with France, meanwhile the Spanish navy had rebuilt its force and now had 58 ships of the line. The French had proven to be able to outspend the British, especially utilizing resources from New France.
The Treaty of Paris had been a setback for Britain and one of Pitt's primary concerns was to reform the British administration in America. With Britain's return to North America in late 1758, a colonial conference was called in Philadelphia by the British Commander-in-Chief, Sir Jeffrey Amherst. Each of the thirteen colonies agreed to send representatives to London, as all had agreed that the current situation was untenable should another war with France commence.
Representatives from Britain's colonies were sent to London and in 1759 immediately infighting began. However, shortly thereafter the Cherokee declared war on the British and began attacking frontier settlements in the Carolinas, once again ravaging the frontier. A British expedition had to be sent to quell the revolt as it had been clear that the provincials were incapable of the task. Led by Colonel Montgomery, British forces arrived in South Carolina in June 1760. Lasting until 1761, the war against the Cherokee resolved the British and the Americans minds to come to an agreement.
In September 1761, the America Act was passed by both houses parliament, and signed by the new King George III on the date of his coronation. It was decided to grant political representation in the House of Commons to each of Britain's thirteen colonies in North America. Benjamin Franklin had been the primary advocate of colonial representation in the Commons and it was decided that each legislature would elect 5 members to represent its interests in London.
The act also stipulated that a Governor-General appointed by the crown, would reside in Philadelphia and be the head of all British military forces in North America. Paid by the crown, he would also act as the representative of the British Crown, and be able to use emergency powers when required. Each "province" would still retain a legislative assembly, however the powers of these would be limited those stipulated in the America Act (mostly pertaining to local administration). Each colony would also have a governor as a direct representative of the crown, whose services would be paid for directly by the crown.
The position of proprietors in the colonies of Pennsylvania and Maryland was abolished, with the respective proprietors compensated with over £200,000. This decision was greeted enthusiastically in Philadelphia, where the Penns had repeatedly blocked legislation to fund a militia in 1755. Proprietary lands were to come under crown control. As some Americans had already been ennobled with peerages, they were allowed to sit in the House of Lords. In addition, members of the Anglican clergy were to elect a lord temporal in the House of Lords.
To defend the colonies, a permanent force of 18,000 would be raised composed of provincials and British regulars would be established as an integral part of the British army. Also, each province would be required to have a militia of at least 1,000 men to be regularly trained. Barracks would be built to house military forces, thus ending one of the Americans' primary grievances. Also, a chain of forts would be built along the frontier and along the coast.
In addition, the Royal Navy would establish the following as dockyards in British North America:
Boston, Massachusetts
Charleston, South Carolina
Norfolk, Virginia
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Portsmouth, Maine
Finally, all customs and duties between Great Britain and British North America would be abolished. This alone would see commerce between Britain and her colonies rise from £2 million per year in 1750 to over £5 million by 1765.
For Britain, the war had cost millions of pounds and seemingly achieved nothing. Britain's public debt had skyrocketed to £137 million (from £8 million in 1754). The colonies in North America were unprepared for war, mostly due to infighting between them and the inability to finance any sort of defences. It was obvious that reform was needed all around.
The Royal Navy had been lost much of its strength, especially after the disaster at Louisbourg in 1757 where 24 ships were lost. In 1758, the royal navy launched 8 new ships of the line, bringing the fleet's strength up to 80 ships of the line. However, Britain was now simply on par with France, meanwhile the Spanish navy had rebuilt its force and now had 58 ships of the line. The French had proven to be able to outspend the British, especially utilizing resources from New France.
The Treaty of Paris had been a setback for Britain and one of Pitt's primary concerns was to reform the British administration in America. With Britain's return to North America in late 1758, a colonial conference was called in Philadelphia by the British Commander-in-Chief, Sir Jeffrey Amherst. Each of the thirteen colonies agreed to send representatives to London, as all had agreed that the current situation was untenable should another war with France commence.
Representatives from Britain's colonies were sent to London and in 1759 immediately infighting began. However, shortly thereafter the Cherokee declared war on the British and began attacking frontier settlements in the Carolinas, once again ravaging the frontier. A British expedition had to be sent to quell the revolt as it had been clear that the provincials were incapable of the task. Led by Colonel Montgomery, British forces arrived in South Carolina in June 1760. Lasting until 1761, the war against the Cherokee resolved the British and the Americans minds to come to an agreement.
In September 1761, the America Act was passed by both houses parliament, and signed by the new King George III on the date of his coronation. It was decided to grant political representation in the House of Commons to each of Britain's thirteen colonies in North America. Benjamin Franklin had been the primary advocate of colonial representation in the Commons and it was decided that each legislature would elect 5 members to represent its interests in London.
The act also stipulated that a Governor-General appointed by the crown, would reside in Philadelphia and be the head of all British military forces in North America. Paid by the crown, he would also act as the representative of the British Crown, and be able to use emergency powers when required. Each "province" would still retain a legislative assembly, however the powers of these would be limited those stipulated in the America Act (mostly pertaining to local administration). Each colony would also have a governor as a direct representative of the crown, whose services would be paid for directly by the crown.
The position of proprietors in the colonies of Pennsylvania and Maryland was abolished, with the respective proprietors compensated with over £200,000. This decision was greeted enthusiastically in Philadelphia, where the Penns had repeatedly blocked legislation to fund a militia in 1755. Proprietary lands were to come under crown control. As some Americans had already been ennobled with peerages, they were allowed to sit in the House of Lords. In addition, members of the Anglican clergy were to elect a lord temporal in the House of Lords.
To defend the colonies, a permanent force of 18,000 would be raised composed of provincials and British regulars would be established as an integral part of the British army. Also, each province would be required to have a militia of at least 1,000 men to be regularly trained. Barracks would be built to house military forces, thus ending one of the Americans' primary grievances. Also, a chain of forts would be built along the frontier and along the coast.
In addition, the Royal Navy would establish the following as dockyards in British North America:
Boston, Massachusetts
Charleston, South Carolina
Norfolk, Virginia
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Portsmouth, Maine
Finally, all customs and duties between Great Britain and British North America would be abolished. This alone would see commerce between Britain and her colonies rise from £2 million per year in 1750 to over £5 million by 1765.
Aftermath of the War in France
In France, the war had reversed the popular discontent felt by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. France was now in possession of the Austrian Netherlands, this being confirmed by the Peace of Hubertusburg in 1763. Louis XV was acclaimed a hero and monuments along with equestrian statues to honour him were built all over France and its empire.
Prussia continued to battle with both Austria and Russia until 1762 when Empress Elizabeth of Russia suddenly died and her successor, Tsar Peter made peace with Prussia. The Austrians failed to gain Silesia and had lost the Austrian Netherlands, but by 1763 the were ready for peace. The ensuing peace treaty left situation in Germany largely unchanged, with borders returning largely to their prewar status.
Although France had achieved its territorial gains, these came at the cost of mounting French debt. France had expended the astronomical sum of 500 million livres (£20 million) on the war, and these would haunt the French finance ministers for years to come.
For Spain, the war was the culmination of a period of administrative and military reform. Spain emerged with as a significant naval power and appeared to finally be recovering after a century of stagnation.
The smaller powers, namely Portugal, the Netherlands and Sweden had remained neutral throughout the war, however the outcome greatly shook their confidence in their allies. Portugal and the Netherlands had largely relied on Great Britain as an ally and after the war, they began to distrust both Spain and France. Therefore, both countries began a modest rearmament campaign and enlarged their navies, both to 24 ships of the line each by 1770. Sweden too, had been shaken by growth of both Prussia and Russia as powers, and began preparing its army for a future war.
In France, the war had reversed the popular discontent felt by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. France was now in possession of the Austrian Netherlands, this being confirmed by the Peace of Hubertusburg in 1763. Louis XV was acclaimed a hero and monuments along with equestrian statues to honour him were built all over France and its empire.
Prussia continued to battle with both Austria and Russia until 1762 when Empress Elizabeth of Russia suddenly died and her successor, Tsar Peter made peace with Prussia. The Austrians failed to gain Silesia and had lost the Austrian Netherlands, but by 1763 the were ready for peace. The ensuing peace treaty left situation in Germany largely unchanged, with borders returning largely to their prewar status.
Although France had achieved its territorial gains, these came at the cost of mounting French debt. France had expended the astronomical sum of 500 million livres (£20 million) on the war, and these would haunt the French finance ministers for years to come.
For Spain, the war was the culmination of a period of administrative and military reform. Spain emerged with as a significant naval power and appeared to finally be recovering after a century of stagnation.
The smaller powers, namely Portugal, the Netherlands and Sweden had remained neutral throughout the war, however the outcome greatly shook their confidence in their allies. Portugal and the Netherlands had largely relied on Great Britain as an ally and after the war, they began to distrust both Spain and France. Therefore, both countries began a modest rearmament campaign and enlarged their navies, both to 24 ships of the line each by 1770. Sweden too, had been shaken by growth of both Prussia and Russia as powers, and began preparing its army for a future war.
Rise of the Tobacco Barons
Beginning in the 1730s, worldwide tobacco prices had started to rise, reaching a peak during the mid-1770s and only crashing in the 1790s. This led to the growth of a small planter elite south of the Belle Rivière (Ohio River in Kentucky). The need for hemp for rope-making both in France and in Québec only added to the region's wealth. By 1770 some 85,000 hogsheads of tobacco were being exported from the region, most of this traffic made its way down to New Orleans and then to France where much of it was re-exported to Germany, Russia, Austria, Italy and the Netherlands.
Louisville was the primary city in this region with 4,500 inhabitants by 1770, however, the small town of Saint-Denis (Lexington) was growing as well with 1,500 inhabitants by 1770. Both towns were know for their overall wealth during this period. New Orleans down the river benefited from all this wealth as it became a primary base for merchants shipping goods to and from this region of Canada.
With all of this wealth, many of the seigneurs in the region began to seek marriages for their daughters to petty impoverished nobles from France. Some settled in France, however there were others like the daughter of Jean-Baptiste Robillard who married the impoverished Marquis and settled in America. This led to the establishment of a landed gentry attempting to mimic the aristocrats of France, building large chateaux with boisserie, artwork and tapestries all imported from France. One French visitor in 1772 noted that the large estates along La Belle Rivière were finer and richer than those of the Loire. Indeed, this region did much to keep the manufacturers of luxury goods (porcelain, tapestries, furniture) in Paris busy.
Below the Chateau de Robillard built during the reign of Louis XVI in the neo-classical style 1775-1779.
Beginning in the 1730s, worldwide tobacco prices had started to rise, reaching a peak during the mid-1770s and only crashing in the 1790s. This led to the growth of a small planter elite south of the Belle Rivière (Ohio River in Kentucky). The need for hemp for rope-making both in France and in Québec only added to the region's wealth. By 1770 some 85,000 hogsheads of tobacco were being exported from the region, most of this traffic made its way down to New Orleans and then to France where much of it was re-exported to Germany, Russia, Austria, Italy and the Netherlands.
Louisville was the primary city in this region with 4,500 inhabitants by 1770, however, the small town of Saint-Denis (Lexington) was growing as well with 1,500 inhabitants by 1770. Both towns were know for their overall wealth during this period. New Orleans down the river benefited from all this wealth as it became a primary base for merchants shipping goods to and from this region of Canada.
With all of this wealth, many of the seigneurs in the region began to seek marriages for their daughters to petty impoverished nobles from France. Some settled in France, however there were others like the daughter of Jean-Baptiste Robillard who married the impoverished Marquis and settled in America. This led to the establishment of a landed gentry attempting to mimic the aristocrats of France, building large chateaux with boisserie, artwork and tapestries all imported from France. One French visitor in 1772 noted that the large estates along La Belle Rivière were finer and richer than those of the Loire. Indeed, this region did much to keep the manufacturers of luxury goods (porcelain, tapestries, furniture) in Paris busy.
Below the Chateau de Robillard built during the reign of Louis XVI in the neo-classical style 1775-1779.
The Expanding Frontier
Beginning in the 1730s, French coureur du bois (fur traders) began searching further west, pushing France's domains further inland and further northward. By the 1730s, the first chain of trading posts were established west of the Great Lakes. Also around that time the first commissioners for the Northwest were appointed to govern the sparsely populated region. In 1731, Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye, left Montréal with a group of fur traders and they set about building a a chain of forts that would establish a French presence all the way to the Rocky Mountains by 1750. The first small agricultural settlements were founded in 1763 around Fort Rouge (Winnipeg), and by 1770 around 400 French settlers would live in this desolate region.
Also, to govern the area the French began to appoint Commissioners of the Northwest, with Pierre de La Vérendrye being the first. In 1756 he was succeeded by his son Louis-Joseph. During the administration of Pierre de La Vérendrye the Rivière du Pas (Saskatchewan River) became an important centre for the fur trade.
Further south, the French crown sought to limit conflict with the Indians and a ban on agricultural settlements without approval of the crown was put into effect for all land west of the Mississippi River.
Below is a list of French forts and posts established in Hudson's Bay and the Prairies.
Hudson Bay & North of the Great Lakes
1697 - Fort Bourbon (York Facotry, ONT)
1725 - Fort Michipicoton (Wawa, ONT)
Great Plains
1714 - Fort le Dout (Wood County, TX)
1740 - Les Grandes Fourches (Grand Forks, ND)
1744 - Fort de Cavgnial (Kansas City, MO)
1787 - Fort Sainte-Marie (Vernon County, MO)
Prairies
1683 - Fort Kaministiquia (Thunder Bay, ONT)
1731 - Fort Saint-Pierre (Rainy Lake, ONT)
1732 - Fort Saint-Charles (Magnusons Island, MN)
1734 - Fort Maurepaus (Lake Winnipeg)
1738 - Fort Rouge (Winnipeg, MAN)
1738 - Fort La Reine (Portage La Prairie, MAN)
1741 - Fort Bourbon (Grand Rapids, MAN)
1741 - Fort Dauphin (Winnipegosis, MAN)
1741 - Fort Paskoya (the Pas, MAN)
1751 - Fort La Jonquière (Calgary, ALB)
1753 - Fort de la Corne (Nipawin, SAS)
1761 - Fort Saint-Louis (Edmonton, ALB)
1776 - Île-à-la-Crosse (SAS)
1787 - Fort Espérance (Rocanville, SAS)
1792 - Fort Bas de la Rivières (Fort Alexander, MAN)
1795 - Fort-des-Prairies (Edmonton, ALB)
Below a map of Vérendrye's explorations
Beginning in the 1730s, French coureur du bois (fur traders) began searching further west, pushing France's domains further inland and further northward. By the 1730s, the first chain of trading posts were established west of the Great Lakes. Also around that time the first commissioners for the Northwest were appointed to govern the sparsely populated region. In 1731, Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye, left Montréal with a group of fur traders and they set about building a a chain of forts that would establish a French presence all the way to the Rocky Mountains by 1750. The first small agricultural settlements were founded in 1763 around Fort Rouge (Winnipeg), and by 1770 around 400 French settlers would live in this desolate region.
Also, to govern the area the French began to appoint Commissioners of the Northwest, with Pierre de La Vérendrye being the first. In 1756 he was succeeded by his son Louis-Joseph. During the administration of Pierre de La Vérendrye the Rivière du Pas (Saskatchewan River) became an important centre for the fur trade.
Further south, the French crown sought to limit conflict with the Indians and a ban on agricultural settlements without approval of the crown was put into effect for all land west of the Mississippi River.
Below is a list of French forts and posts established in Hudson's Bay and the Prairies.
Hudson Bay & North of the Great Lakes
1697 - Fort Bourbon (York Facotry, ONT)
1725 - Fort Michipicoton (Wawa, ONT)
Great Plains
1714 - Fort le Dout (Wood County, TX)
1740 - Les Grandes Fourches (Grand Forks, ND)
1744 - Fort de Cavgnial (Kansas City, MO)
1787 - Fort Sainte-Marie (Vernon County, MO)
Prairies
1683 - Fort Kaministiquia (Thunder Bay, ONT)
1731 - Fort Saint-Pierre (Rainy Lake, ONT)
1732 - Fort Saint-Charles (Magnusons Island, MN)
1734 - Fort Maurepaus (Lake Winnipeg)
1738 - Fort Rouge (Winnipeg, MAN)
1738 - Fort La Reine (Portage La Prairie, MAN)
1741 - Fort Bourbon (Grand Rapids, MAN)
1741 - Fort Dauphin (Winnipegosis, MAN)
1741 - Fort Paskoya (the Pas, MAN)
1751 - Fort La Jonquière (Calgary, ALB)
1753 - Fort de la Corne (Nipawin, SAS)
1761 - Fort Saint-Louis (Edmonton, ALB)
1776 - Île-à-la-Crosse (SAS)
1787 - Fort Espérance (Rocanville, SAS)
1792 - Fort Bas de la Rivières (Fort Alexander, MAN)
1795 - Fort-des-Prairies (Edmonton, ALB)
Below a map of Vérendrye's explorations
Population of North America in 1760
New France 1760
Europeans (94% of the total population)
Acadia 446,139
Canada 1,616,794
Illinois 257,275
Louisiana 248,162
Newfoundland 127,553
Pays d’en Haut 476,396
Total: 3,172,319
African Ancestry & Mixed European-African (5% of the total)
Acadia 1,187
Canada 79,215
Illinois 4,628
Louisiana 69,226
Newfoundland 189
Pays d’en Haut 2,784
Total: 157,229
Indians & Métis in French Settlements (1% of the total)
Canada 13,697
Acadia 4,426
Illinois 3,325
Louisiana 4,695
Newfoundland 92
Pays d’en Haut 6,627
Total: 32,862
New France Total: 3,362,410
13 British Colonies 1,275,819 Europeans + 325,806 African Ancestry
Total: 1,601,625
Texas
60,000 Spaniards & Mestizos
7,000 Indians living in Spanish Missions
2,000 Africans or Mixed European and African or Mixed Indian and African
Total: 69,000
Florida
11,000 Spaniards & Mestizos
3,000 Indians in Spanish Missions
1,200 Africans or Mixed European and African or Mixed Indian and African
Total: 15,200
New France 1760
Europeans (94% of the total population)
Acadia 446,139
Canada 1,616,794
Illinois 257,275
Louisiana 248,162
Newfoundland 127,553
Pays d’en Haut 476,396
Total: 3,172,319
African Ancestry & Mixed European-African (5% of the total)
Acadia 1,187
Canada 79,215
Illinois 4,628
Louisiana 69,226
Newfoundland 189
Pays d’en Haut 2,784
Total: 157,229
Indians & Métis in French Settlements (1% of the total)
Canada 13,697
Acadia 4,426
Illinois 3,325
Louisiana 4,695
Newfoundland 92
Pays d’en Haut 6,627
Total: 32,862
New France Total: 3,362,410
13 British Colonies 1,275,819 Europeans + 325,806 African Ancestry
Total: 1,601,625
Texas
60,000 Spaniards & Mestizos
7,000 Indians living in Spanish Missions
2,000 Africans or Mixed European and African or Mixed Indian and African
Total: 69,000
Florida
11,000 Spaniards & Mestizos
3,000 Indians in Spanish Missions
1,200 Africans or Mixed European and African or Mixed Indian and African
Total: 15,200
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