Earlier Permanent Settlement of New France

[Viriato]

Louisiana

Having been claimed by the French in 1682, the Mississippi River Delta had a slow beginning under French rule. Upper Louisiana, also known as Illinois had prospered with fur trappers having established trading posts during the 17th century. With the defeat of the Iroquois, settlers from Canada and to a lesser extent Acadia having settled the regions East of the Mississippi (the present day states of Illinois, Kentucky, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, and Wisconsin). In 1717 Upper Louisiana is separated to be governed as Haute-Louisiane, but will eventually be called Illinois.

Lower Louisiana was administered by the Mississippi Company beginning in 1684. However, the company was unsuccessful in its mandates and hampered by wars in Europe, the region was often ignored by the French crown. In 1686, the first trading posts were founded in Arkansas, however, the first settlement on the Gulf Coast wouldn't occur until 1699 with the settlement of Biloxi by 260 Canadians. In 1701 this was followed by Fort Saint-Jean (New Orleans) and in 1702 with Fort Condé (Mobile, AL).

Most of the earlier Canadian settlers were simply trappers and traders with little interest in farming. Most hoped they would find silver, gold and other riches as the Spanish had done in New Spain. With the beginning of the War of Spanish Succession, Swiss Regiments were sent to protect Fort Maurepas in Biloxi and Fort Condé. Throughout the war, the area became a haven for privateers and generally languished.

With peace returning to Europe after the War of Spanish Succession, Lousiana again became a French priority. On September 14, 1712, a wealthy Toulouse merchant, Antoine Crozat (marquis du Châtel) was granted control of Lower Louisiana and given a 15-year trading monopoly over the area. However, having invested little in the region, he gave up control of the Mississippi Company in 1717. The most notable achievements of the Crozat period was the expedition by Canadian born Louis Juchereau de Saint-Denis in 1713-1714. He founded Fort Rosalie (Natchez, MS), and Fort Saint-Jean Baptiste des Natchitoches along with Fort Le Dout (Wood County, Texas).

Meanwhile, in France Scottish financier and friend of Philippe d'Orléans, regent of France John Law acquired control of the Mississippi Company and renamed it the Compagnie d'Occident (Company of the West). Having founded the Banque Générale in 1716, his short rule of the Lower Louisiana would create one of the largest financial bubbles in French history.


John Law

During his control of the Mississippi Company, John Law was granted a tobacco trading monopoly over the colony in September of 1718. It was hoped that the tobacco farms of the Ohio River region would begin exporting tobacco down the Mississippi River. To that effect, plans for a new settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi are established with levees being built in 1717. The new settlement is founded in 1718 as La Nouvelle-Orléans (New Orleans), named after his benefactor the Regent of France and Duke of Orléans. In 1718, 800 settlers arrived from France in a single day, doubling the settlement's population. Despite being destroyed by a hurricane in 1722, the city was rebuilt and in 1723 it became the capital of Louisiana. By 1727 La Nouvelle-Orléans is a thriving port and is home to over 3,000 people.

Part of the Mississippi Company's mandate is to settle 6,000 Europeans and 3,000 slaves in Lower Louisiana by 1742. To that effect, John law's company begins to ship people of questionable repute, mostly from Paris to Louisiana. Between 1717 and 1721 7,020 French settlers arrive in Louisiana, of these 1,278 are convicts. Women are also recruited, mostly prostitutes from the infamous La Salpêtrière in Paris and in September of 1719 they are chained together with criminal men and sent to the ports of embarkation. It was said that Paris was cleaned of most of its rabble and adventurers with over 5,000 during peak year of 1721.

However, to recruit more Europeans, the Company of the West began to advertise along the Rhine River in Germany and Switzerland. In 1720-1721 more than 10,000 Germans were recruited as settlers, however only 2,000 actually ended up settling in Louisiana. The Germans proved to be some of the most productive settlers as they began farming along the Mississippi River, 25 miles north of New Orleans. This was in contrast to most of the French recruits who were often unfamiliar with farming or unwilling to farm and preferred to settle in the towns.

In 1706, the first African slaves are brought to the region from the Caribbean and in 1716 the first slaves are imported directly from Africa. Most come from the Senegambia region and introduce cultivation of rice in Louisiana. However, they have a high mortality rate and the importation of slaves will continue to increase so that by 1725 there are 6,000 African slaves in Louisiana.

In France, the Mississippi Company becomes of great interest to those with capital to invest. With the authorization of the French Crown, John Law issues more shares of the company. In January of 1719 the bank he had founded in 1716, Banque Générale, is acquired by the French Crown as Banque Royale and begins to issue paper money as legal tender. The first shares of the Mississippi Company are also issued at 500 livres each. In May of that year, Law acquires Compagnie des Indes orientales and Compagnie de Chine, effectively controlling all French trade outside of Europe. With speculation that great wealth will come from Louisiana, shares reach 10,000 livres by December of 1719. In January of 1720, John Law becomes Controller General and Superintendent General of Finance in France, effectively controlling France's finances. Shares of the Mississippi Company reach 15,000 livres.

However, the shares of the Mississippi Company are backed by nonexistent assets (the mineral treasures and wealth of agricultural wealth of the colony). By the summer of 1720 with over 600,000 shares issued, the price begins to tumble. In September share prices are down to 2,000 livres and by December 1,000 livres. By the end of 1720 the Duke of Orleans revokes the charter, and John Law was dismissed from his positions. Also in December, John Law flees France. In 1721 the Mississippi Company compes under bankruptcy protection and is forced to reorganize with share prices falling to their original price of 500 livres. Only in 1723 would Louis XV grant the privileges to raise new capital for the company.

Meanwhile, in Illinois tobacco prices are have been in a slump since 1713. During this period, land holdings are increased amongst the wealthiest seigneurs. Controls to ensure the quality of tobacco produced are introduced and hemp production also becomes important in region. By 1732 tobacco prices recover and will remain high for the next 40 years, increasing the wealth and power of the tobacco planters along the Ohio River.

Lower Louisiana remains under company control until 1731. It is that year where New France's administration is reorganized with a Viceroy in Quebec and four subservient governors and intendants in Plaisance, Newfoundland, Détroit, Illinois, Port Royal, Acadia and La Nouvelle-Orléans in Louisiana. Each colony has a governing council subservient to the Sovereign Council in Quebec.

After the fall of John Law, Lousiana continues to grow, albeit at a slower pace. Cotton is introduced in Louisiana in 1721, however its production will remain unimportant for the next seventy years. Indigo becomes the primary cash crop of the region, with rice and corn being important. The German pioneers are particularly successful, and one area that prospers is Rosalie (Natchez, MS). In 1727, the last large shipment of women of ill repute arrives in the colony. To aid them, Ursuline nuns are sent to Louisiana and a large convent is constructed in New Orleans in 1734.

Ursuline Convent in New Orleans

 

[Viriato]

Inspired by the Canal du Midi in France, plans are set in 1689 for a canal to bypass the Lachine Rapids of Montreal. This will allow commerce between Montreal and the outside world increase dramatically. With work postponed by financial pressures of the War of Spanish Succession, the nearly nine mile long canal opens in 1714.

Though public works are of some importance in New France, the major portion of the budget throughout the 1720s goes to building forts along the border with the British colonies. Acadia is seen as particularly vulnerable and new stone fortifications are built in Port Royal and Port La Joye (PEI). Louisbourg in Ile Royale is also founded in 1720 to prevent British incursions into the area. Port Royal becomes a walled city surrounded by large masonry walls. One of the largest fortifications, however is Fort Saint-Frédéric (Crown Point, NY) completed in 1734.

Though the population of New France is much more prosperous than their European counterparts, the colony's finances are somewhat precarious. Most revenue is raised through tariffs on imports and taxes on exports, leading to a large amount of illicit trade with the British colonies. Indeed, British wools and other goods are shipped to Acadia via New England. In 1722, the King's Road between Quebec and Saint-Jean (Saint John, NB) is opened to provide access to this ice-free port for commerce to New France, making French goods more accessible to the colony.

However, New England and New York merchants grow wealthy trading with New France. Albany in New York becomes an important trading city as British merchants barter French furs and grains for British wools and manufactured goods. To that effect in November 10, 1727 a decree from France arrives banning foreign commerce. The French officials meant to monitor this contraband are often underpaid and easily bribed. In France, merchants begin to press the French crown to lower tariffs.

New France is for the most part self-sufficient in staple goods and is able to export wheat to the much more financially valuable French Caribbean islands. The lack of gold and silver in the colony, means that most payments are done through barter or with paper currency. However, in 1717 the French crown devalued the paper currency of New France by 50% due to counterfeiting, making the Canadians suspicious of paper money.

In the Saint Lawrence River valley drought hits in 1715 and a plague of caterpillars devastates the 1720 harvest. In 1737-1738 and 1741-1743 poor harvests affect the Saint-Lawrence River area once again. By the 1730s, the overpopulation of the region will begin a westward migration in larger numbers than those seen previously. Most settle around the great lakes region and around the Ohio River.

Though some manufacturing begins with the first iron works at Forges Saint-Maurice north of Trois-Rivieres, most manufactured goods must be imported. Ship building also begins at Point-aux-Pins in Lake Superior. Coal mining begins in Ile-Royale (Ile Saint Jean) in 1720. Also, the first salt mines begin in Acadia begin providing New France with enough salt. This allows the French government to end the requirement that French merchants trading with New France be forced to carry salt to the New World (much to their delight).

One bright spot in the economy of New France is the return to profitability of the fur industry. Between 1718-1730 the amount of furs exported to France increases 250%, however most of it is no longer beaver. This leads to expansion of the fur trade to the North and West. In 1715, Fort Michilimackinac was founded (Mackinaw City, MI) and Fort Kaminisqtiquia (Thunder Bay, ONT) was founded in 1718. By 1723, the French have established Fort Orléans west of the Mississippi (Brunswick, MO). Bordeaux replaces La Rochelle as the primary port of trade with New France and becomes an important centre of reexport of goods to Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Spain.


Fort Michilimackinac

Between 1738 and 1743, Pierre Gaulthier de Varennes et de La Vérendrye establishes French a series of French forts and trading posts in modern Manitoba. These are Fort Rouge, Fort La Reine, Fort Bourbon, Fort Dauphin and Paskoya. By 1753 this expansion has crosses Saskatchewan into present-day Alberta with Fort de La Corne, Fort Saint-Louis, Fort La Jonquière and Fort La Biche. Also in the west is the trading post of Les Grandes Fourches (Grand Forks, ND) and Fort de Cavagnial (Kansas City, KS) founded in 1740 and 1744, respectively.

By 1720 the French population of New France by regions is as follows
Acadia 174,817
Great Lakes Region 225,218
Hudson's Bay 2,888
Lower Lousiana 23,748
Newfoundland 43,333
Ohio River Valley 202,101
Saint Lawrence River Valley 449,615
Total Population: 1,121,720

By contrast, the British colonies are home to 466,200 people in 1720. However, the British Middle and Southern Colonies receive far more immigrants. New England, much like New France has had little net migration since 1660s, relying much more on natural growth.

 

[FDW]

Interesting TL, consider me subscribed.

 

[Viriato]

Beginning in the 1720s the French had incited the Choctaw tribe to attack Chickasaw villages in response to the latter’s trade with the British in South Carolina. The British began supplying the Chickasaw with arms and they regrouped themselves into villages, which were easier to defend. Until the 1720s, French settlement had remained largely north of the Riviere des Chaouanons (Cumberland River). Fort Prudhomme (Memphis, TN), established in 1682 was a relatively small settlement and trading post. However, beginning in the 1720s, French settlers began to settle south of the Chaouanons River, encroaching on Chickasaw lands. Further west, the French had also begun settling on lands of the Natchez Indians. Fort Rosalie (Natchez, MI) had been founded in 1716, in the heart of Natchez territory and became a fast growing settlement due to the growth of the tobacco plantations in the area. In November of 1729 the Natchez began massacring French settlers in the region between Fort Rosalie and Fort Saint-Pierre (Vicksburg, MI). The Natchez killed French men, while abducting French women, children and their African slaves. In all, over 200 settlers were killed. In response, the French militia with the assistance of their Choctaw allies retaliated, in the process destroying the Natchez as an independent tribe by 1730. Many Natchez were sold into slavery, and sent to the French West Indies, some however were able to escape and take refuge with the Chickasaw, Creek and Cherokee.

By the 1730s, there had been intermittent attacks by the Chickasaw on isolated French settlers and traders, in retaliation the French decided to launch a military expedition with 600 French regulars and 600 Indian allies against the Chickasaw in March of 1736. Despite outnumbering them three to one, the first two attacks were repulsed by the Chickasaw. However, by early spring of 1737 reinforcements had arrived from further north and this time a much larger force consisting of over 6,000 French regulars, 2,800 militia members, and 2,400 Indians was assembled, to destroy the Chickasaw. The French resorted to a scorched earth policy, burning villages and farmland. The result was devastating for the Chickasaw, with fewer than 2,000 Chickasaws out of a population of an estimated 5,000 in 1735. Some found refuge in the British colonies, while others were found refuge amongst the Cherokee. To make matters worse, in 1738 a smallpox pandemic swept through the Carolinas, killing over half of the Cherokee and Chickasaw populations.

In 1739, a larger fort, Fort de l’Assomption was built near Fort Prudhomme to protect the French settlers along the Mississippi. Meanwhile, poor harvests in 1738, 1741, 1742, 1744 and 1751, coupled with a fast growing population would drive more Canadiens out of the Saint-Lawrence River valley to the lands, however many would continue to settle west, particularly in Illinois and Pays d’en Haut. Others, would continue pushing the boundaries of the Fur Trade further to the Northwest. To that end, Fort Rouge (Winnipeg), Fort de La Reine (Portage La Prairie Fort Pasoya and Fort Dauphin (present day the Pas and Winnipegosis, MAN) would be constructed between the 1738 and 1741. Also, founded in 1740, Les Grandes Fourches (Grand Forks, ND), would become a major trading post for the French.

Further south, the intermittent Indian wars had concerned the French government, and in 1731 the French Crown had assumed direct responsibility over Louisiana. Tobacco and wheat was now being shipped by barges from Illinois and Ohio River Valley to New Orleans. Much of the tobacco had often been poor in quality and French merchants complained. To that end, the French emulated Virginia’s “Tobacco Inspection Act” of 1730, two years later, establishing stringent requirements for exported tobacco, along with inspection points along the Mississippi River. Though this squeezed out many smaller producers, by 1735, some 30,000 hogsheads of tobacco were being exported to France. This would lead to the creation of a new planter elite of seigneurs. Not unlike the wealthy planters of the French West Indies, many would move to Paris and would become absentee landowners. However, those who remained would become the founders of New France’s planter aristocracy. Meanwhile, in lower Louisiana Indigo becomes the chief export, and will remain so until the 1770s.

Below a typical French Plantation in Pascagoule (Pascagoula, MI) from the 1720s.

 

[Viriato]

In 1740, Louis XV had the Government of New France reorganized into 6 provinces, each with a governor to handle its military affairs along with an intendant to handle the civil affairs. They are listed below:

Acadie - Port-Royal
Canada - Québec
Illinois - Saint-Louis
Louisianne - La Nouvelle-Orléans
Pays d'en Haut - Détroit
Terre-Neuve - Plaisance


The Viceroy, seated in Québec acted as the supreme military authority of the colony, however the intendants exercised financial authority (including paying troops). In addition, Montréal, Trois-Riviéres, Louisbourg and Mobile all had their own military governors, in some respects acting as mayors. The new administration was meant to streamline government and tax collection, however it failed to achieve its objective. The powers of governors and intendants were often ill defined, often creating clashes. Finally, there was the Sovereign Council in Québec, consisting of the Viceroy, the Archbishop of Québec, Councillors and a Clerk, acting as a Supreme Court for the colony.

At the local level, each parish had a militia captain, often a respected man who would rank just below the seigneur in each parish. Early on, most captains were seigneurs, but by the 18th century most seigneurs had become officers in the Compagnies Franches de la Marine. The militia captains organised military training of the men in each parish, usually once a month. They also carried out censuses, assisted the maréchaussée (police force) in capturing criminals and as fire brigades. In times of need, they would also round up the able bodied males in a parish for public works (especially fort building during war). Finally, they acted as intermediaries between the habitants and their seigneurs.

As mentioned above, New France was divided into parishes, each with its own parish church and priest. The Roman Catholic Church played a far greater role in New France than it did in France itself. Local parishes were the centre of both social and religious life in rural New France. Parish priests recorded and births, deaths and marriages, often they also drew up legal contracts where no notaries were present. Priests also disseminated notices from the crown and news, often they were the only literate inhabitants of a parish, especially in Pays d'en Haut. They were often the only source of news for locals.

In 1660, the Diocese of Québec had been elevated to the rank of an archdiocese, and Montréal had been elevated to a diocese by 1698. The Archbishop of Québec would be the supreme religious authority in all of the colony. By 1740, Détroit, New Orleans and Port Royal had their own bishops as well. One important thing to remember, is that under the Concordat of Bologna in 1516, the King of France had gained the right to appoint archbishops, bishops, abbots, and priors, giving him a large degree of control over the church.

Finally there were the religious orders, the most prominent amongst these being the Jesuits. The religious orders ran all of the hospitals and schools in the colony, with the Jesuit colleges in Québec and Montréal being the most prominent. Several of the female orders played an instrumental role in the colony, among them the Ursulines. They were established schools for girls and established hospitals. The religious orders were important as often times they ran large seigneuries, especially ones where natives lived under their protection.

Below is the population of each province as of 1740.

Population of European Ancestry in 1740
Canada 1,050,446
Acadia 286,458
Pays d'en Haut 273,490
Illinois 135,279
Newfoundland 71,006
Louisiana 99,818
1,916,497
In addition to 94,015 of African ancestry (mostly still slaves) and 33,419 Indians and Métis in French parishes or missions: 2,043,931

By comparison, the British Colonies have a population of 905,653
755,629 of European Ancestry
150,024 of African Ancestry

*Spanish Texas is estimated to have a population of 24,000 Europeans and Mestizos.

Spanish Florida only has around 4,500 Europeans and Mestizos.

* A note about Spanish Texas:
Worried about growing French expansion westward, the Spanish begin encourage the settlement of Texas. In 1719, the Marquez de San Miguel de Aguayo, Governor of Coahuila and Texas writes to the King of Spain to send 400 families from the Canary Islands, Galicia and Havana to populate Texas. By 1731, 1,593 had arrived in the colony. With peace between Spain and Britain in 1742, the Spanish Crown sends another 4,800 Canarios to Texas along with 1,200 Galicians between 1743-1748. In addition, another 1,100 Canarios and 450 Cubans were sent to Spanish Florida, most settling in Pensacola and San Agustín (St. Augustine).

France for its part had founded Fort Le Dout in 1714 (Wood County, Texas). They also built missions to trade with the Caddo and Osage, many of whom would be converted to Roman Catholicism by Jesuit missionaries.

Below is a map of the administrative reform

 

[Viriato]

Urban Life

By 1740, around 8% of the inhabitants of New France lived in towns & cities. The largest settlements were ports and trading centres Québec, Montréal and Saint-Jean. Most of the men in the cities and towns were employed as craftsmen, in small industry, trade or in the military.

Largest Urban settlements in 1740.
Québec 35,781
Montréal 24,119
Port-Royal (Annapolis Royal, NS) 16,101
Détroit 14,777
La Nouvelle-Orléans (New Orleans) 11,893
Saint-Jean (Saint John, NB) 8,812
Saint-Louis (Saint Louis, MO) 6,695
Louisville (KY) 4,435
Frontenac (Kingston, ONT) 4,222
Mobile 3,414
Rosalie (Natcez, MI) 3,396
Sandouské (Sandusky, OH) 3,318
Louisbourg 2,818
Plaisance (Placentia, NFLD) 2,773
Vincennes (Vincennes, IN) 2,615
La Baye (Green Bay, WI) 2,591
Chartres (Prairie du Rocher, IL) 2,207
Bâton Rouge 1,715
Saint-Fréderic (Crown Point, NY) 1,696

The largest cities were ports linked with France and the West Indies by trade. Early on, most of the commerce between New France and France was with La Rochelle, Rouen, and Saint-Malo. However, by 1750 Bordeaux, Nantes, and Bayonne had grown in importance, with Bordeaux eventually supplanting La Rochelle as the principal port of trade by the mid-18th century. Bordeaux exported wine and manufactured goods to New France and imported tobacco, furs, wheat and flour. The Gradis, Bigot, Bréard and Cadet merchant families all established trading houses in both Québec and Montréal. They made credit available to Canadiens so that they could acquired goods from France.

Luxury goods were acquired by many Canadiens in record numbers, these included wool and silk textiles, draperies and furniture from France. Indeed, many visitors commented on the abundance of ostentation in dress by the Canadiens. In return, Canadian timber, wheat and cod were picked up and exported to the West Indies. From there, ships sailed back to France with sugar and coffee, creating a triangular trading pattern.

Throughout the 1730s and 1740s, unlike British America the French had been preparing for war and cargoes of war materials including canons, were being shipped in record numbers to Acadia and Canada. Ship building increased as well, with Québec booming as several frigates were launched including the 36-gun Abénaquise. Due to all of this activity, many farmers abandoned their farms to become day labourers and in some cases, inn keepers.

Montréal grew as the main export hub for both furs and grain from Canada. Saint-Jean became important as a port due to the fact that its harbour would not freeze over during the winter. Also, it became an important area of illicit trade with New England (of British goods), much to the annoyance of French authorities. Détroit grew as the main hub to the Northwest fur trading, it was an important trading centre as well. Many towns also grew as military garrisons grew throughout the 1730s and 1740s.

Further south, La Nouvelle-Orléans and Mobile both enjoyed fast growth as their trade with the West Indies and Spanish America increased. Wheat, flour tobacco, and salted pork became their main exports, however indigo was also becoming important. The import of slaves was also important and roughly half of the inhabitants of La Nouvelle-Orléans, Mobile, Louisville, and Rosalie were slaves.

The towns themselves were constructed mostly out of stone resembling the mediaeval towns of Britanny (not suprisingly since a large portion of the early settlers originated there). This is in contrast to New England where most construction is of wood. After fires, edicts banned wood buildings in both Québec and Montréal in the 17th century. By the 18th century, limestone from the interior (Indiana) was used to face not only government and church buildings, but also the homes of the wealthy, the "hôtels particuliers" emulating Parisian styles.

Typical architecture found in New France, the "Place Royale" in Québec.

 

[Brainbin]

Interesting updates! Nice to see a rich and detailed look at 18th-century colonial life in New France. I was wondering, though - why are the borders between Illinois, Pays d'en Haut, and Canada drawn like that? It seems to me that Illinois (defined as the Upper Louisiana territory) has been massively cheated out of land, and I'm not sure why.

It seems to me that the French would likelier subdivide the territory of New France according to watersheds:

• Canada would be all waters draining into the Gulf of St. Lawrence (via the Great Lakes) - except for Acadia and Terre-Neuve, of course.
• Pays d'en Haut would be all waters draining into the Hudson Bay (OTL Rupert's Land - it's a logical territorial claim to make, which is why Britain did so in Utrecht)
• and Louisiana would be all waters drained by the Mississippi River into the Gulf of Mexico, divided into Lower Louisiana or Louisiana proper and Upper Louisiana or the Illinois Country (as IOTL).

You haven't gone into a whole lot of detail about why the boundaries are different ITTL. Could you? I'm curious.

 

[Viriato]

Interesting updates! Nice to see a rich and detailed look at 18th-century colonial life in New France. I was wondering, though - why are the borders between Illinois, Pays d'en Haut, and Canada drawn like that? It seems to me that Illinois (defined as the Upper Louisiana territory) has been massively cheated out of land, and I'm not sure why.

It seems to me that the French would likelier subdivide the territory of New France according to watersheds:

• Canada would be all waters draining into the Gulf of St. Lawrence (via the Great Lakes)
• Pays d'en Haut would be all waters draining into the Hudson Bay (OTL Rupert's Land - it's a logical territorial claim to make, which is why Britain did so in Utrecht)
• and Louisiana would be all waters drained by the Mississippi River into the Gulf of Mexico, divided into Lower Louisiana or Louisiana proper and Upper Louisiana or the Illinois Country (as IOTL).

You haven't gone into a whole lot of detail about why the boundaries are different ITTL. Could you? I'm curious.

I went mostly looking at old maps on what areas were called. The boundaries on some old maps really have no purpose, even these are more or less approximate. I should have mentioned that the provincial borders don't have too much influence on the administration of the colony as a whole. This is unlike, British North America where colonies jealously guard their own autonomy from one another. The administration of New France is still highly centralized in Québec and the only reason to have subservient governors and intendants is to provide some visible presence of the King's authority in far-flung regions. Much of the interior is still a wilderness, especially west of the Mississippi River and even the boundaries with British North America are only meant to be approximate, as the Appalachian Mountains is still Indian territory.

As for the straight lines, I imagine many areas west would be unknown or undefined, so the French government would simply say everything south of 19' N is Illinois/Haute-Louisianne, everything north is Pays d'en Haut. In the meantime, they'd probably claim everything to the Pacific Ocean (as the British did with their Carolina colonies).

In OTL, a much smaller New France had a Governor-General in Québec and governors in Montréal, Plaisance, Louisiana, Acadia and Trois-Rivières. However, authority seemed to intentionally be ill-defined and oven over-lapped to make sure that authorites vied with one another for influence with the King and petty jealousies ensued (ironically, Hitler later did the same thing).

Unlike France, where different civil codes existed, New France is all governed my the Coutume de Paris (Custom of Paris) from Québec. The army and militia is also highly centralised. This obviously will have some benefits, but it will also create problems in the future. Being from somewhat diverse backgrounds in France (Bretons, Basques, Parisians, Normans etc) who did not often speak standard French, the settlers quickly adopted what was then Parisian French as their lingua franca and within a few generations created a fairly homogeneous group of people which would become known as Canadiens.

 

[Viriato]

On May 3, 1744 news reached Acadia that France was once again at war with Britain. As, previously mentioned, the French had been preparing for another war with the British throughout the previous decade. Shipbuilding was promoted in New France, and by 1744, several frigates had been launched in both from Québec and Saint-Jean. One of the most heavily subsidized endeavours, was the formation of the iron works at Saint-Maurice near Trois-Rivières. Hoping that these would be able to produce artillery pieces for the colony, the French Crown granted subsidies of more than 190,000 livres by 1744. No artillery pieces were produced, however nails were, reducing the need to import these from France.

Also important in preparing for war had been the construction of new fortifications along with reinforcing existing ones. After the War of Spanish Succession, the French had also built up a massive citadel at Louisbourg on Île-Royale (Cape Breton Island). This fortress was meant to be the “Dunkirk of the America” to protect the fisheries of Newfoundland along with Québec City from any British attack. The site chosen, was an ice free harbor where French shipping could pass year round. Another major fortification was Fort Saint-Fréderic (Crown Point, NY), begun in 1734 and completed two years later.

In New England, the British settlers were ill equipped for war. Infighting between the colonies over finances had made the Massachusetts Bay Colony reluctant to adequately defend Maine or New Hampshire. The first French attack began on May 24, 1754 with an attack on Casco, Maine where over 100 British were taken prisoner. The next month, Norridgewock was destroyed. Throughout the summer of 1744, French privateers from Acadia and Newfoundland harassed British merchant shipping, capturing 25 New England based ships. In September of 1744, both Falmouth, Maine and Portsmouth, New Hampshire had been captured by French forces from Acadia. The survivors of the attack were taken prisoner to Port-Royale. Portsmouth, now became a haven for French privateers, plundering British ships as far south as Virginia. By the autumn, they had sailed up the Delaware River, looting and burning several small settlements in Delaware and threating Philadelphia, Britain’s largest settlement in North America.

In November of 1744, Governor William Shirley, convened the Legislative Assembly of Massachusetts. Many members encouraged an attack on Acadia, however the governor cautioned this as being too costly and too dangerous. However, they did formulate a plan to retake Portsmouth from the French. In the March of 1745, a British fleet arrived in Boston, along with 6,000 British troops, they were given a heroes’ welcome in Boston, which had been flooded with refugees. The French for their part had a force of 1,800 men stationed in Fort William and Mary, which they had renamed Fort Saint-Louis. However, with the arrival of the Royal Navy, they were no longer able to be as easily resupplied from Acadia. In May, a month long siege by British and Colonial forces begins. Led by William Pepperrell, a merchant from Kittery, the 4,200 British troops are able to retake the Fort William and Mary, providing an important psychological boost to the morale of the New Englanders. However, throughout that summer raids by Abenaki, Mi’kmaq and Maliseet allies of the French would continue along the Maine and New Hampshire coasts.

By August of 1744, the war had arrived in New York as well, with the French and their Abenaki allies raiding settlements within 50 miles of Fort Saint-Fréderic. Under Canadien commander Gaspard de Léry, the French were able to capture Fort Bridgman (Vernon, VT) in November of 1744. Also that month, Fort Saratoga in New York was destroyed by a force of 400 French and 200 Indians, with plundering occurring to the outskirts of Albany. With the frontier-line from Boston to Albany no longer being tenable, the British colonists fled into the interior and left their lands abandoned to the French. Throughout the winter of 1744-1745, raids on small settlements of New York and Western Massachusetts would continue.

In April of 1746 Schenectady was sacked and burned and the siege of Albany would commence. However, running low on artillery with their supply lines stretched thin, the French and Indians looted simply looted British farms and returned to Fort Saint-Fréderic. Also in April, a raiding party arrives in Deerfield, Massachusetts and burns the settlement. Throughout the summer of 1746, raids took a toll on northern New England and New York, however the French forces were running low on gunpowder as the British blockade of France had been effective in limiting supplies to New France.
Throughout 1747 and 1748, raids would continue by the Indian allies of the French, however the British had abandoned every settlement north of Albany in New York and most of the coastal settlements in Maine and New Hampshire. A French relief force sailed towards Acadia in 1747, however it hit a storm and was blown off course. Its aim had been to plan an attack on Boston. However, these plans were effectively shelved with the Royal Navy’s dominance of the seas.

Much to the annoyance of the Canadiens, the boundaries returned to their antebellum status quo with the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle of 1748. In New England and New York, over 10% of the population had perished during the war, and most were thankful the war was over. The Royal Navy established a permanent base in Boston, being the Royal Naval Dockyard, with the New England colonies and New York all agreeing to pay a portion of this necessity. Also, the British began to build fortifications in Northern Massachusetts, New York and New Hampshire. However, without any military preparation by the colonists themselves, the British colonies were becoming increasingly reliant on Great Britain to defend them from the French.

The French for their part, began to realize the need to not only build up their navy, but allow New France to become more self-sufficient economically. To that end the first gunpowder mills in New France and Acadia would be established in 1752 and 1754, respectively. Also, as the French crown had struggled with tax collection in New France (and France itself), it began relying more on tariffs and excise taxes to collect revenue. This particularly annoyed the merchants of coastal France, however it would allow economic self-sufficiency to slowly become a reality in their largest colony.

Louisbourg on Île-Royale in 1744. With the addition of 5,000 French troops, the population of Louisbourg Parish had swelled to over 11,000.

 

[Dathi THorfinnsson]

Inspired by the Canal du Midi in France, plans are set in 1689 for a canal to bypass the Lachine Rapids of Montreal. This will allow commerce between Montreal and the outside world increase dramatically.

I don't think I understand that line. The Canal de Lachine is upriver of Montreal, not below it.

 

[Unknown]

Taking this to today?

Good TL.

Will you focus on pop culture, technology, etc.?

 

[Viriato]

I don't think I understand that line. The Canal de Lachine is upriver of Montreal, not below it.

My mistake, I should have proofread better, that line should read:

"Inspired by the Canal du Midi in France, plans are set in 1689 for a canal to bypass the Lachine Rapids of Montreal. This will allow commerce between the country west of Montreal and the outside world increase dramatically."

In essence, the Lachine Canal's purpose is to open up the interior of Canada to trade.

 

[Viriato]

Fiscal System

Beginning in 1732, the French crown became more serious about revenue collection in New France. To that end, revenue collection became the domain of the Royal Department of the Marine.

The taxation of imported wines and spirits had displaced fur pelts as the primary source of revenue into the colony by the late 17th century. To that end, the import duties were increased in 1747 to the following:

12 livres per cask of wine (previously 9)
24 livres per cask of rum (previously 15)
25 livres per cask of brandy (previously 18 livres, 15 sous)

In February 1748 a General Tariff was applied on all imports and exports of 3% ad valorem. The following goods were exempt: grains, flour, salt beef and salt pork, along with most other foodstuffs. Goods connected with the fishing industry were also exempt. Beaver pelts were exempt, however moose hides were subject to a tax of 1/10th of all hides.

As soon as merchant vessels anchored at port in French America, guards went on board to inspect the goods. All ships captains or masters were required to make a declaration of cargo of both dutiable and duty-free goods. Permission to land them was given once promissory notes to pay the duties were received. Duties were usually not paid immediately because of scarcity of hard currency in the colony. Instead merchants sold their goods on credit with upcoming harvests used as payment. Usually accounts were settled in September and October, after the harvest.

Another form of revenue was taxation, however this was much less onerous than in France itself. Poll taxes were collected in cities and fortified towns, these were used to pay for fortifications and roads. A tax on the sale of land (lods et ventes) also existed. Finally there was the corvée where each male inhabitant was required to do four days of labour for road construction, maintenance of bridges or fortifications. However, this could be commuted by a payment.

By 1749 the budget was as follows:

Revenues
Wine & Liquor duties 7.7 million livres
Import Duties 3.2 million livres
Revenue from Exports 2.6 million livres
Revenue from poll and land taxes (capitation & lods et ventes) 2.6 million
Revenue from Miscellaneous (Postal Office, miscellaneous, crown domains, liquor licenses) 2.7 million
Total 18.8 million livres

Expenditures
Military 4.4 million livres
Navy 2.8 million livres
Crown Offices 2.4 million livres
Miscellaneous Expenses 7 million livres
Total 16.6 million

As noted above the 2.2 million livres budget surplus existed that year, an impressive feat considering France itself was heavily indebted. However, the 2.2 million livres surplus was added to France's revenues. However, with France running a deficit of over 100 million livres that year, this had little effect. However, it also must be noted that during the War of Austrian Succession, New France's defence budget was running at 10-12 million livres per year (France's at over 10 times that amount), meaning it too was in the red.

One problem in New France was the lack of hard currency, beginning in the 17th century, card money (literally playing cards) signed by the intendant had been in circulation. However, these became subject to devaluation and counterfeit. Barter was often used, however the fluctuations in prices of goods made this impractical. Merchants in France usually sold goods with promissory notes, avoiding the dangers of carrying specie across the Atlantic. The French crown banned paper currency between 1719 and 1729, but in 1730 reissued paper currency. Between 1741-1749 an estimated 49 million livres of paper money was in circulation in the colony.

The preferred currency was still gold and silver. Hard to come by, it was hoarded by the Canadiens. Spanish silver was one of the most common sources of specie in the colony (as it was in British America), however French gold Louis d'or were the most prized. The Louis d'or was itself devalued from 20 to 24 Livres in 1740.

Below a Louis d'Or, minted in 1742 showing Louis XV on the obverse and the arms of France and Navarre on the reverse.

 

[Viriato]

Taking this to today?

Good TL.

Will you focus on pop culture, technology, etc.?

I am going to try, but it's going to take a while. Also, I do like to focus on social and economic history as well, so yes I do plan to discuss culture and technology and how it will shape this very different world.

 

[Qhapaq Inka]

Great timeline, subscribed - I find it especially interesting since I just got back from a vacation in Nova Scotia where I had the opportunity to visit Louisbourg fortress

I'm curious, what does the rest of the French colonial empire look like in this timeline with such a highly-developed New France? Do the French Caribbean and French India look broadly similar to OTL, or not so much?

 

[Dathi THorfinnsson]

My mistake, I should have proofread better, that line should read:

"Inspired by the Canal du Midi in France, plans are set in 1689 for a canal to bypass the Lachine Rapids of Montreal. This will allow commerce between the country west of Montreal and the outside world increase dramatically."

In essence, the Lachine Canal's purpose is to open up the interior of Canada to trade.

Aha! OK, now THAT makes a lot of sense.

Of course, there are all the other rapids up the St. Lawrence between there and Lake Ontario, but it's a start. What it DOES do is open up the Outtaouais, I believe.

 

[Viriato]

Population of New France in 1750

European Population by Province
Acadia 372,433
Canada 1,276,961
Pays d’en Haut 357,315
Illinois 181,781
Louisiana 174,615
Newfoundland 97,721
Total: 2,460,826

Population of African Ancestry (Slaves, Free & Mulattoes)
Canada 64,670
Louisiana 49,118
Illinois 2,872
Pays d'en Haut 1,334
Acadia 1,143
Newfoundland 209
Total: 119,346

Indians & Métis in French Settlements
Canada 11,361
Pays d'en Haut 9,885
Illinois 4,634
Acadia 3,837
Louisiana 2,434
Newfoundland 157
TOTAL: 32,308

The population growth was in part assisted by the immigration of 12,000 Germans recruited from the areas along the Rhine, along with Lorraine to settle in Louisiana in former Chickasaw Lands. In addition tosome 11,000 French from Brittany, Normandie, Navarre, and Poitou. However, nearly half of the immigrants from France are from Paris, mostly a mix of artisans recruited by the colonial government along with people seeking fortune in Louisiana.

In Acadia, the lands that had been mostly populated by the Abenaki along the New England border are opened up to European farming as the Acadian population is rapidly growing. In Acadia, nearly half of all women marry before before the age of 20, and for those who do, and the average family size is 10 children. Women marrying between the ages of 20 and 24 have an average of 9 children, and for those marrying between the ages of 25 and 29 the average is 7 children.

In nearby New Spain, Ferdinand VI no longer trusts the French government and has found the Pacte de Famille to be useless in Spain's defence. To that end, an additional 1,700 families are recruited in Galicia, Asturias and the Canary Islands in 1748-1749 to Texas. The population of Texas is estimated to be 48,000 by 1750. Florida only has around 7,500 Spaniards and Mestizos with fewer than 500 African Slaves.

In the British Colonies, the population of New York and New England suffered during the War of Austrian Succession, however settlers from Ireland (Protestants) and English settlers are sent in large numbers to New England. By 1770, New Hampshire will be overwhelmingly Anglican and Presbyterian in religion. Germans from the Palatine region are sent to New York and Pennsylvania. Also, although New England has a very high birthrate, around 1750 it begins declining slightly.

Population of the British Colonies 1750
European Ancestry 934,340
African Ancestry 236,420
TOTAL: 1,197,760

In 1749-1750, Swedish explorer and Botanist travels around New France and the British colonies on an exploratory mission. He is warmly received by the French Viceroy along with the governor of Montréal. Of the Canadiens he writes the following in his "Travels Across North America":

"Anyone who cares to recall to what extent the houses of Canada are filled with children... and that the men and women of French origin are built better than anyone else to have children... anyone who considers how alive, joyous, courageous, inured to fatigue the Canadiens are... must equally foresee that Canada will, in the near future, become a very powerful country and the Rome of the French provinces."

He also comments on the religiosity of the Canadiens and Acadiens and how they must be among the most religious people in the world. He writes about their love of days of festivals (fêtes) and how they wear brightly coloured clothing imported from France, their "love of wine and song" which contrasts with the sobriety found in New England.

A typical home of a habitant in Canada, around the mid-18th century

 

[Viriato]

Naval Expansion

By 1690, France had the world’s most powerful navy, however Britain’s Royal Navy had gained ascendancy since the War of Spanish Succession and Britain was the world’s preeminent naval power by 1750. The War of Austrian Succession had exposed the French Navy’s weaknesses, especially after the defeats at Cape Ortegal (May 1747) and Cape Finisterre (October 1747). By 1748, when the war ended, the French were left with a mere 41 ships of the line, by comparison Britain’s Royal Navy had 80 ships of the line. French commerce was at the mercy of the Royal Navy and British privateers, and the British were able to successfully blockade France’s coastline. As a result of these blows, the Secretary of State of the Marine, the Count of Maurepas was dismissed from his post in disgrace in 1749.

Between 1749 and 1755 Antoine-Louis Rouillé, Count of Jouy became Secretary of State of the Marine. Considered an able administrator, he sought to expand the French Navy, and under his tenure 40 ships of the line were launched, 12 of which were 80-gun ships, capable of matching Britain’s large 80-90 gun-ships. Meanwhile older ships were retired, and naval dock yards provisioned. By 1755, France had reached its goal of 70 ships of the line. In a future war with Britain, the objective was so that France could hold its own against the British and escort convoys across the Atlantic. French trade with New France and the Caribbean was worth over 400 million livres annually by 1750, and the merchant fleet had grown from 150,000 tons in 1730 to 574,000 tons by 1755. France wanted to safeguard its trade as a vital part of the economy.

As Rouillé was also in charge of France’s colonies, he would decisively alter the course French colonial policy in New France. During the last war, Britain had been able to make it so that New France’s soldiers were low on provisions from France. Therefore, Rouillé sought to make New France self-sufficient during times of war. To that end, gunpowder mill was built in Trois-Rivières in 1753, and the ironworks in Saint-Maurice are expanded under the tutelage of Pierre Babaud Chaussade (Ironmaster of France), so that by 1755 there are 2,500 men working at 6 forges and 4 furnaces. By 1755, the first anchors are being produced in New France. Artillery production is still unknown in New France, and therefore cannons are shipped in large quantities to New France and the Caribbean.

Perhaps the most important change in French policy though is to utilize New France as the major source of naval stores. During the previous war, the Royal Navy was able to cut France’s supplies of naval stores. Previously, France obtained most of its hemp and timber from the Baltic, especially Russia. To that end, the French government begins encouraging the cultivation of hemp for cordage south of the Ohio River around Louisville. The new crop did well in the area and would compete with tobacco as the region’s most important export. Also, red and white pine from the banks of the Ottawa River, begins being used for masts, yards and bowsprits. Rouillé writes that the “Timber from Canada is equal to if not superior to that imported from the Baltic”. The growth in the timber trade leads to the number of men engaged in forestry growing from 1,500 in 1740 to around 8,000 by 1755. Finally, tar and pitch for ship decks in obtained from the areas around Mobile and around Lake Pontchartrain in Louisiana. Turpentine also began being distilled from the pine forests of Southern Louisiana in large quantities.

The growth of the naval stores industry also leads to increased ship building in New France. Québec and Saint-Jean become important ship-building cities as hulls of ships are built and shipped to France where they fitted with guns in Brest. Most of the ships built at the dockyards were merchant vessels, however 20 frigates were launched from New France between 1749 and 1755. In 1753, the first French 56-gun ship of the line was launched from Quebec.

The ship-building industry began to play an important economic role in New France. Traditionally, the habitants had little to do after the autumn harvest and before the onset of spring. However, timber could be cut and transported during winters. Also, shipbuilding continued during the winter months. These two activities provided an additional source of income for many habitants who previously had only relied upon farming.

One great benefit the French derived from its large North American empire was the possession of Newfoundland and Acadia. The Newfoundland and Saint Lawrence fisheries with their harsh conditions were considered the best training grounds for French sailors. By 1755, over one-fourth of France’s 60,000 sailors had trained in these waters. By 1750 around 3,000 French sailors were being trained annually around Newfoundland and Acadia. Many Terre-Neuviens and Acadiens, already skilled in sailing would go on to join the French Navy or Merchant Marine.

Finally, Rouillé decided to reform the navy in another important way. Commanders were compelled to spend at least part of the year each year with their units. Also, the instruction of young officers was changed to emulate the British, and conditions along with pay were improved.

French Shipbuilding at Québec

 

[fasquardon]

In Acadia, nearly half of all women marry before before the age of 20, and for those who do, and the average family size is 10 children. Women marrying between the ages of 20 and 24 have an average of 9 children, and for those marrying between the ages of 25 and 29 the average is 7 children.

Did the French in the Americas ever have such high birthrates OTL?

fasquardon

 

[Brainbin]

Did the French in the Americas ever have such high birthrates OTL?

Yes, they absolutely did - especially in Acadia, which IIRC had even less immigration (even relative to its population) than Canada. Also, the life expectancy was higher, and the perennial shortage of women that plagued Canada wasn't as much of a problem because the Acadians cross-bred extensively with native (Micmac) women.

More great updates, Viriato!