The Union Forever: A TL

[Mac Gregor]

Start of Reconciliation
July-September, 1863​

Artist depiction of Confederate forces surrendering their colors​

Following the dissolution of the Confederacy in early July the rest of the South not already subjugated fell to the North in rapid succession. The advancing Union armies wasted no time occupying the state capitals not already under their control. On their way Federal forces enforced the P.E.R.U, freeing hundreds of thousands of slaves in a matter of weeks. The State of Texas, which had remained basically free of Union troops during the war, was the last Southern state to be occupied. When Major General Sherman’s army arrived in the state capital of Austin at the end of July Sherman proclaimed that under the P.E.R.U all slaves in Texas were now and forever free. For this reason July 29th is often celebrated as Emancipation Day in many parts of the United States.

Throughout the South, the defeated Confederate forces were almost invariable paroled after their military munitions had been confiscated. The few exceptions were top military and political leaders such as Jefferson Davis who was arrested by Ulysses S. Grant’s forces as the former Confederate president was making his way through Mississippi. Davis would spend several months in prison before eventually being pardoned by President Lincoln. Davis, who was still immensely unpopular in the South for his conduct in managing the war, went into exile in Europe for the rest of his life. Jefferson Davis would die in London in 1873 of phenomena never having returned to the United States. Other former Confederate generals and politicians, such as Alexander Stephens, would spend short stints in prison before being released. Many of these leaders would be banned from voting or holding elected office for the rest of their lives.

In what would become known as Reconciliation, Lincoln outlined his top priorities for the post-war United States. First, the return of all Southern states still outside of the Union under his 10 percent plan. Second,ensure that the P.E.R.U is enforced in the Deep South. Third, complete the compensated emancipation of slaves in the Border States, Virginia, Tennessee, and Louisiana. Lastly, establish a new Homestead Act that would provide land grants to settlers, including freed slaves, in the western territories. It is also worth noting that with the war now over Lincoln began the movement of troops to the Rio Grande under Major General Sherman to send a message to the French forces, who had recently captured the Mexican capital, that their presence was not welcomed.

A Union victory parade in Washington D.C.
July, 1863

In the end, the American Civil War proved to be the costliest war in American history up to that time, resulting in an estimated 315,000 deaths both North and South. Property damage although significant was relatively light considering the scope of the war. Indeed of all Southern cities, Chattanooga stands out as the most damaged, while other major urban centers such as Richmond, Atlanta, and New Orleans emerged from the conflict relatively intact. Slavery was virtually destroyed by the war. The "peculiar institution" remained only in a strip of states in the center of the country, all of which had plans for complete emancipation within a few years.

 

[Mac Gregor]

French Withdrawal from Mexico
October 1863-January 1864​

Emperor of the French, Napoleon III​

The French, along with the British and Spanish, had invaded Mexico in early 1862 with the stated intention to force Mexico to pay debts owed to the European Powers. It soon became apparent to the British and Spaniards though that the Second French Empire under Emperor Napoleon III was actually intent on conquering the Latin American country. Accordingly, Britain and Spain withdrew from Mexico a few months later. Unfortunately for the reformist government of Mexican President Benito Juarez, the French stayed and were able to successful capture the Mexican capital in June of 1863.

With the Civil War now won, President Lincoln was adamant that France’s violation of the Monroe Doctrine would not stand. Lincoln, having already moved thousands of Federal troops to the Mexican border, ordered a naval blockade in October of 1863 to block the arrival of French reinforcements. This blockade, coupled with Austrian Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian’s earlier rejection of an offer to be made Emperor of Mexico, forced the French Emperor to rethink his intentions. Bereft of British and Spanish assistance Napoleon III realized that he could not risk a war with the United States whose army and navy were still swollen from the Civil War.

In light of what was widely viewed to be a situation that would only deteriorate for the French, Napoleon III made the decision to get out while he was ahead. In a deal mediated by the United States in January of 1864, it was agreed that French troops would be withdrawn if President Benito Juarez would promise to honor Mexico’s debts to France. With French forces occupying Mexico City, and therefore little room to maneuver politically, President Juarez reluctantly accepted.

This agreement allowed all sides to claim victory. France had achieved it stated war aim, although it was far short of Napoleon III’s real desire to build a an empire in the New World, and showed that Napoleonic France was a major world power able to project itself anywhere in the world. Lincoln successfully upheld the Monroe doctrine and earned himself additional political capital as he moved towards reelection. In the end Mexico was liberated and President Juarez was able to consolidate his power from the conservatives who had backed the French.

Despite all sides apparently achieving their goals, this near-conflict caused considerable tension between the United States and France. Historians would often point to this as the beginning of a Franco-American hostility that would last well into the twentieth century. Mexican-American relations however were improved by Lincoln’s stand against the French, furthering the United States’ reputation as, Vice President Hannibal Hamlin once said, the “Defender of the Hemisphere.”

 

[Mac Gregor]

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Abraham Lincoln's Second Term

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1864 President Election

Incumbent Abraham Lincoln headed into the 1864 Presidential elections with a commanding lead being at the time one of the most popular presidents in American history due to his successful completion of the war and forcing France’s withdraw from Mexico. As such, Lincoln was unanimously nominated as the presidential candidate at the Republican National Convention in Baltimore. At the convention there was considerable talk of dropping Vice President Hannibal Hamlin from the ticket. Major General Sedgwick was mentioned as a possible replacement but Sedgwick decided instead to run for the governorship of Connecticut, which he easily won. In the end, Hamlin was left on to appease the more radical elements in the Republican Party although some republicans decided to back John C. Freemont as a third party candidate who favored a more assertive stance towards the vanquished South.


Horatio Seymour
Presidential Canidate (D)
New York

The Democrats at their national convention had considerable difficulty in finding a suitable candidate for President. Andrew Johnson the current Governor of Tennessee seemed to be a good choice, but Johnson made it clear that he would not run against the man that “saved my beloved Union.” More candidly, Johnson also realized that Lincoln was almost certainly going to win reelection. After much debate the Democrats finally nominated former New York Governor Horatio Seymour for President. Lazarus W. Powell, a former governor and current senator from the Commonwealth of Kentucky was chosen as the Vice Presidential nominee.

As predicted, Lincoln easily won reelection to a second term. Seymour carried only the former Confederate states allowed to vote and Kentucky. Alabama, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Florida did not participate as they would not fully return to the Union until 1865 due to their proposed state constitutions not meeting the standards of the Republican controlled Congress. Lincoln’s reelection was seriously aided by the huge number of Union war veterans who would be a main source of support for the Republicans for decades to come.

Reconciliation

Reconciliation, as the process of reintegrating the South into the Union became known, was Lincoln’s primary concern during his second term. By November of 1865 all the former Confederate sates were successfully readmitted into the Union, with South Carolina being the last to rejoin. Union troops however still occupied several Southern cities to protect the newly freed black population and prevent any lingering Confederate sentiments from reigniting the conflict. Unfortunately, violence towards freed blacks was all too common and several white vigilante groups arose terrifying the black populace.

One of the key planks in Lincoln’s campaign platform was for a constitutional amendment to officially ban slavery in the United States. However, three-fourths of the state legislatures would be needed to ratify the amendment. This meant that some sort of deal would have to be struck with the southern states in order to gain their votes. Thus, in what sometimes is termed as the compromise of 1865, it was agreed that Federal troops would be removed from most of the South once the Southern states had ratified the thirteenth amendment.

13th Amendment

The thirteenth amendment to the constitution was ratified on December 3rd, 1865 stating…

Sec. 1: Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction, after June 1, 1867.

Sec. 2: Congress, in conjunction with the states, shall have power to enforce earlier emancipation, or to provide recompense for emancipation, prior to June 1, 1867, upon due consideration of the subject's participation in rebellion against the Constitution of the United States.

Sec. 3: Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

June 1, 1867 was chosen as the date for final emancipation so that the few remaining slave states would have time to complete their earlier agreed upon timetables for gradual compensated emancipation.

Western Expansion


The Homestead Act of 1865 was another of the Lincoln administration’s crowning achievements. This act provided 40 acres and supplies to start up a small farm to any single man or family who would uproot and settle in the United States’ western territories. This offer also applied to the recently freed, or soon to be free, blacks of the former Confederacy. Over the next two and half decades ,millions of American citizens would take the trek west, including a large number of blacks fleeing the vengeful acts of Southern whites. In years to come, the significant number of African American landowners in western states would play an important role in the Civil Rights movement of the twentieth century.

During Lincoln's second term Nevada and Nebraska were admitted to the Union on September 2, 1864 and December 15, 1866 becoming the 35th and 36th states respectively.

In 1867, Lincoln reluctantly authorized Secretary of State William H. Seward to purchase Alaska from the Russian Empire for 7.5 million dollars. Although Lincoln was not a big proponent of American expansion, the near war with France over Mexico taught Lincoln that the less territory the Europeans held in the New World the better. The purchase was derided by many newspapers who thought it an ridiculous sum for a veritable frozen wilderness.

Another significant event of the late 1860s was the opening of the transcontinental railroad. This cross continent railway was officially completed on October 23rd, 1868 shortening a trip that once took months to a few days. Soon after Lincoln, became the first sitting president to visit the west coast. However, it is worth mentioning that the popular urban legend that Lincoln drove in the golden spike to complete the railroad is false as can be seen in the photograph below.

Completion of the Trancontintal Railroad
October 23, 1868


Foreign Developments

In Europe the Kingdom of Prussia triumphed over the Austrian Empire in a brief war in 1866. This victory, coupled with that over Denmark in 1864, sent shock waves through the continent that Prussia was a power to be dealt with. However, following Prussia’s victory in the Austro-Prussian War, Prussian Chancellor Otto Van Bismarck was unable to forge an alliance with their defeated foe after Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I and Crown Prince Rudolf were assassinated by the deranged father of a fallen Austrian soldier in the streets of Vienna on November 29th, 1866. Franz Joseph was succeeded to the throne by his younger brother Ferdinand Maximilian who was crowned Emperor Maximilian I. Unlike his older brother, Maximilian I favored forming an alliance against the emerging power of Prussia. Soon after his coronation the new emperor established an alliance with Napoleon III of France. It has been speculated that Napoleon III and Maximilian's friendship might have been aided by the rumor that Maximilian was actually fathered by Napoleon II during his time in Austria. The Franco-Austrian Alliance would become a fixture in European politics for decades to come.

Maximilian I
Emperor of Austria
1866

Lincoln after the White House

Refusing to run for a third term, Lincoln retired to his home in Springfield, Illinois. There Lincoln would write his memoirs which became an international bestseller and to this day considered by many historians to be one of the best presidential memoirs ever written. In the later years of his life, Lincoln would often express regret that he did not press for more sweeping reforms during Reconciliation for former slaves. Lincoln would stay active until his death, writing books and going on several well publicized speaking tours throughout the United States and Europe. Abraham Lincoln passed away in his Springfield home at the age of 78 on July 4th, 1887, the same day of the year as Presidents John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. Lincoln’s funeral was one of the largest in American history a fitting capstone to one of the country's greatest presidents.

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Abraham Lincoln's Home
Springfield, Illinois ​

 

[Mac Gregor]

The 1868 Presidential Election
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An old wartime photograph of John Sedgwick
Republican from Connecticut
17th President of the United States​

Although Abraham Lincoln’s popularity waned somewhat during his last years of office, most historians still believe he could have won reelection for President a second time. However, Lincoln decided to honor Washington’s precedent and not run for a third term. The declining health of his wife Mary Todd Lincoln might also have contributed to Lincoln’s desire to retire from political life. ​

At the 1868 Republican National Convention former Major General and General in Chief of the Union Armies John Sedgwick was selected as the Republican’s presidential candidate. Sedgwick, the current Republican Governor of Connecticut, easily obtained his party’s nomination without any serious opposition. For Vice President the Grand Old Party nominated the former and first Republican Governor of Virginia Arthur Ingram Boreman, illustrating the headway that the Republican Party was making in the Upper South. ​

Arthur I. Boreman
Republican from Virginia
16th Vice President of the United States​

The Democrats re-nominated Horatio Seymour of New York to be their presidential nominee. For Vice President however, the popular governor of Tennessee, Andrew Johnson was selected as Seymour’s running mate. ​

The election results of 1868 closely mirrored those of 1864. The Republicans carried all of the northern states as well as the western states of California, Oregon, and Nevada. Seymour delivered much the same performance as he did four years earlier except that Kentucky narrowly went for the Republicans. It is also worth noting that although Virginia’s electoral votes went for Seymour, the Republican Party was able to capture a significant portion of the popular vote, including virtually all of the mountainous western part of the state. In the end, John Sedgwick was soundly elected the 17th President of the United States. ​

 

[Mac Gregor]

The Sedgwick Presidency (1869-1877)​

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37 Star Flag adopted after Colorado joined the Union in 1874​

The presidency of John Sedgwick is remembered as a time of national healing, industrialization, and settling the western frontier. Sedgwick had a strong reputation for honesty, which often put him at odds with many of the career politicians of his day.

Foreign Policy


Annexation of Santo Domingo: In the fall of 1869, President Sedgwick squeezed through a treaty in the U.S. Senate by a one vote margin annexing the Dominican Republic in exchange for assuming the island nation’s debts. Sedgwick was a proponent of annexation because he believed that the Dominican Republic could serve as a new home for southern blacks wanting to leave the repressive conditions in the South. Although only a few thousand American blacks would eventually move to the Commonwealth of Santo Domingo (as the U.S. Territory was called), the island did provide the location for an important U.S. naval base at Samana Bay.

The War Scare of 1872: In what historians would call the War Scare of 1872, the Prussian led North German Confederation narrowly avoided a war with the French and Austro-Hungarian Empires over the allegiance of the south German states. The subsequent Conference of Munich, realigned the Kingdom of Bavaria and a few other small catholic south German states into an alliance with Austria-Hungary and France in an effective attempt to curtail Prussia’s increasing power. This humiliating setback for Prussia pushed them into an alliance singed in 1874 with imperial Russia to counter the growing power of the Bonapartes and Hapsburgs. In light of these events, President Sedgwick continued to stress American neutrality in European affairs.

Napoleon IV comes to Power: Emperor of the French, Napoleon III, died on March 5th, 1875 due to surgical complications over bladder stones. His son Louis Napoleon was crowned Napoleon IV in a lavish ceremony in Notre Dame Cathedral on his 19th birthday on March 19, 1875. Napoleon IV continued France’s industrialization and in a few years time started a massive build up of the Imperial French Navy.

Napoleon IV
Emperor of the French
1875

The 1872 Presidential Election


Andrew Johnson
Democratic from Tennessee
1872 Presidential Candidate

In 1872, the Republicans maintained control on the Whitehouse with the decisive reelection of President John Sedgwick and Vice President Arthur I. Boreman. Although almost all of the southern states went for the Democratic candidates, Tennessee Governor Andrew Johnson and his running mate former Maj. General Winfield S. Hancock of Pennsylvania, the election results showed that the Republican Party was starting to make serious inroads with southern working class voters, especially in the Upper South.

Domestic Policy


Colorado: The United States continued to settle its western territories during Sedgwick’s time in office with Colorado entering the Union on November 2th, 1874.

American Centennial: July 4, 1876 marked the centennial of American independence. From one end of the country to the other, the nation was united in massive parades, demonstrations, and displays of fireworks. The centennial celebrations were also noteworthy in that for many parts of the Deep South it was the first time that Independence Day had been celebrated since before the Civil War.

American Centennial Celebrations in Philadelphia
July 4, 1876

Reconciliation: With Reconciliation largely over, race relations in the southern states settled into a pattern that would last for decades. So called “black codes” kept southern blacks from voting or holding office in most parts of the South during this period. Coupled with this atmosphere of strict segregation, lynchings and other overt acts of violence towards blacks continue to happen, especially in the Deep South. Leaders of the African American community during this time concentrated their efforts on economic and educational advancement, establishing several universities for black students.

 

[Mac Gregor]

President Boreman
and the
War with Spain​

Arthur I. Boreman
Republican from Virginia
18th President of the United States​

The 1876 Presidential Elections

As the Sedgwick years drew to a close it was his Vice President Arthur I. Boreman of Virginia that quickly emerged as the Republican frontrunner. Although there were a few men in the North concerned about a Virginian president so soon after the Civil War, Boreman was able to easily secure his party’s nomination. For the Republican's 1876 Vice Presidential candidate Congressman James Blaine from Maine was selected to balance the southern Boreman.

When the results were tallied, Boreman beat Democratic candidate former Maj. General Hancock of Pennsylvania and his running mate Senator William Allen of Ohio by a respectable margin. Significantly, Virginia had narrowly gone for the Republicans, making it the first former Confederate state to vote for a Republican candidate for President.

Cuba and Spain


Boreman’s presidency was plunged into crisis almost as soon as he was inaugurated. By the time Boreman took office in early 1877, Cuban rebels had been fighting with their Spanish overlords for nine years in what seemed to be an increasingly futile attempt to through off the yoke of Old World oppression. The War for Cuban Independence had begun when a Cuban lawyer and plantation owner named Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, fed up with the Spaniards economic rape of his island, freed his slaves and declared Cuba’s independence. Since then the Cuban insurrectos waged a guerrilla war against loyalist and Spanish forces, a war that in recent years went poorly for the rebels.

The Republican controlled government of the United States favored a Cuba free from Spanish rule for two main reasons. Firstly, the captive island nation still had the institution of slavery. Secondly, ever since the near war with France in 1865 European forces located so close to the United States were deemed to be a serious threat to the country’s security. In order to support the Cuban freedom fighters the federal government had been funneling guns and supplies to the rebels ever since the late 1860’s, a fact that infuriated the Spanish government. Meanwhile across the Atlantic, Spain in recent years went through a period of drastic political instability with republican, Bourbon, and Carlist forces threatening the military junta that ruled Spain ever since the forced abdication of Queen Regnant Isabella II in 1875.

Declaration of War

USS Ossippee, 1877

The incident that sparked the conflict occurred off the coast of Maisi, Cuba a city located on the far eastern tip of the island. What actually occurred on that foggy night of May 16, 1877 is still hotly debated amongst historians to this day. The United States claimed that the Spanish frigate San Justo suddenly fired at the USS Ossipee, an American sloop on its way from New Orleans to Santo Domingo. The Spaniards claimed that the Ossipee was offloading supplies to Cuban rebels and that it fired first when it saw the approaching Spanish vessel. Regardless, after a fierce exchange of fire, the Ossippe was sunk and the San Justo seriously damaged. The Ossippe Incident caused outrage in both the United States and Spain. In the volatile weeks that followed, President Boreman demanded the release of the Ossippe survivors. Spain refused to release the sailors and instead demanded an apology and a stop to the U.S. supplying the insurrectos. Boreman retaliated by increasing aid to the rebels and strengthening American naval presence in the Caribbean.

In light of these developments, Spain declared war on the United States on September 12th, 1877 in order to divert public attention abroad and with the belief that the Spanish navy could handle the Americans. This declaration was soon reciprocated by one from Washington, officially starting the Spanish-American War.

 

[Mac Gregor]

American Military Preparations
September-October, 1877​

The United States was woefully unprepared when war erupted with Spain in 1877, both at land and on sea. Nevertheless, the America moved swiftly for its first conflict with a European power since the War of 1812.

The Navy

Nathan Goff Jr.
Secretary of the Navy

At the start of the war with Spain the United States found its navy in a sorry condition. The U.S. Navy numbered a paltry 6,400 sailors. Furthermore the American fleet only possessed 51 operational vessels, most of which dated back to the Civil War, over 14 years ago. This was a far cry from 1863 when America boasted around 400 warships, many of which now in 1877 were either scrapped or mothballed and rusting.

With the sudden outbreak of the war it was up to Nathan Goff Jr., the 34 year old Secretary of the Navy, to bring as many of these mothballed vessels back up to fighting standards as quickly as possible. Although Goff, a Republican politician from the same part of western Virginia as President Boreman, had never served a day at sea his is now remembered as one of the most important figures in U.S. naval history.

The Army

Robert Todd Lincoln
Secretary of War

Over the course of the conflict, Nathan Golf developed a close friendship with the U.S. Secretary of War, former President Abraham Lincoln’s oldest son Robert Todd Lincoln. Robert Lincoln had missed military service due to attending Harvard during the Civil War. After graduating from Harvard Law School, Lincoln followed in the footsteps of his famous father and became a lawyer. After a few years of practicing law in Illinois, Robert Lincoln entered politics and was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives at the age of 29 in 1872. He served as a Republican Congressman until the election of President Boreman in 1876 when he was offered the position of Secretary of War.

Lincoln had barely settled into office when the conflict broke out, and like his friend in the Naval Department, Lincoln scrambled to muster the forces needed to defend the nation. This was not an easy task in late 1877, when the U.S. Army was undermanned, underpaid, and overextended fighting the Indians in the west.

Maj. General William Tecumseh Sherman
Commanding General of the United States Army

Lincoln made a point from the very start of the war to work hand in hand with the Commanding General of the United States Army, 57 year old Major General William Tecumseh Sherman. In conjunction with Secretary Lincoln, Sherman, one of the heroes of Vicksburg and the conqueror of Arkansas and Texas, immediately began shuffling the few Army units on hand to protect the southeastern coastline until naval supremacy could be achieved against the Spanish. Sherman and Lincoln were also able to convince President Boreman to agree that until new forces could be raised (Boreman had at the onset of the war called for 80,000 volunteers) units from the state militias should be called out to protect the east coast.

American War Aims

In early October of 1877, President Boreman held a council of war with General Sherman and Secretaries Goff and Lincoln in the Whitehouse to outline the nation’s goals for the war. First, President Boreman stated that military forces should be built up to defend the American coastline and the Commonwealth of Santo Domino before the military undertook any offensive operations. Secondly, since the war was largely a result of Spain trying to maintain its grip on its New World holdings it was decided that Spain must relinquish control of Cuba and Puerto Rico as a condition for peace. Whether these islands would be annexed by the U.S. or granted their independence was not discussed. Nathan Goff then brought up the Spanish colony of the Philippines. After a brief discussion, a consensus was reached that since all available naval assets were need on the east coast, an expedition to the Philippines would only be launched after the Caribbean had been cleared of Spanish forces.

In short, at the start of the war the military of United States was at one of its lowest points in history. It would be up to America’s military leaders, President Boreman, Secretaries Goff and Lincoln, and Maj. General Sherman to see if the young nation could weather the coming storm.

 

[Mac Gregor]

Opening Engagements
October-December, 1877​

The first major confrontation of the war, the Battle of El Verraco, took place on October 28, 1877 when a squadron of American warships under Rear Admiral John Rodgers repulsed a Spanish convoy containing men and supplies in route to Santiago de Cuba. The first land combat of the war occurred two weeks later where, in a surprise move, the Spaniards successfully raided the city of Bavaro in the Commonwealth of Santo Domingo. The attack on Bavaro was part of Spain’s plan to take advantage of the U.S. territory’s fractured politics by stirring up insurrection in Santo Domingo against American authorities.

Notable U.S. ground commanders

Lt. Colonel George Armstrong Custer
United States Army
1877

With the Spanish-American War taking place roughly 14 years after the conclusion of the Civil War, the United States drew from a vast number of experienced officers and senior NCO’s. The most prominent of these Civil War veterans was of course William T. Sherman who in November of 1877, due to the rapid enlargement of the Army, Congress saw fit to promote to Lieutenant General, a rank that had not been held since George Washington in the Revolutionary War. Other prominent Veterans that would play an important role in the war included Lt. Colonel George Armstrong Custer and former Confederate General James Longstreet.

Lt. Colonel Custer, who rose to the rank of major during the Civil War, had since made a name for himself as an Indian fighter in the American West. Custer now commanded the 3rd U.S. Cavalry Regiment which redeployed from the frontier to fight the Spanish in the planned invasion of Cuba. James Longstreet had seen extensive action during the Civil War in the eastern theater fighting for the Confederacy and after the war had became the successful owner of a Southern railway company. Longstreet had also been one of the few but increasing numerous Southerners to join the Republican Party. Secretary of War Lincoln believed that the war with Spain was a golden opportunity to heal the scars of the Civil War, and that a former Confederate General turned Republican supporter would be a public relations masterstroke. As such, Secretary Lincoln offered Longstreet the command of a division of volunteers then forming in Florida under Corps commander Major General Philip Sheridan. Longstreet accepted the appointment and was awarded the rank of Brigadier General in the United States Army.

A 1876 photo of James Longstreet before he was appointed
a Brigadier General in the United States Army

The Battle of the Keys

The next major engagement of the war took place on Christmas Day 1877 near the Florida Keys, when a large taskforce of Spanish ships on its way to interdict shipping and raid the coast of Florida was intercepted by a smaller American force. The battle was technically a Spanish victory as the American force was forced to withdraw after over five hours of intense fighting. Interestingly, even though the Spaniards outnumbered the Americans two to one, the Americans over the course of the battle were able to inflict roughly twice as many casualties on the Spanish. This was largely due to the fact that many of Spain’s naval vessels were still largely made out of wood.

The American press at the time greatly exaggerated the damage the Spaniards suffered at the Battle of the Keyes with the Atlanta Journal calling it “one of the most hollow pyrrhic victory in history” and Harpers Weekly even comparing it to the Mexicans victory at the Alamo. Regardless, the battle did illustrate the important fact that the Spanish Navy was even more backwards than their American opponents, and with more and more American warships coming on line every month, Spanish authorities formed a plan they hoped would quickly win the war.



USS Saginaw
Sunk at the Battle of the Keys
December 25, 1877

 

[Mac Gregor]

The Battle of Ragged Island
January 17, 1878​

Rear Admiral John Rodgers
United States Navy ​

In what would prove to be the decisive naval engagement of the war, the Battle of Ragged Island took place on January 17, 1878. The battle, which occurred 20 miles south of the Bahaman island for which it is named, began when a fleet of Spanish warships escorting a relief convoy from Spain was intercepted by the American Fleet under Rear Admiral John Rodgers. The Spanish fleet consisted of 6 armored steam frigates, 3 ironclads, and an assortment of smaller vessels against the American fleet of 2 armored Steam frigates, 4 ironclads, and a corvette.

The flagship of the Spanish Fleet the Numancia, 1877

During the first stage of the battle, the Americans slugged it out with their Spanish counterparts for over three hours. The turning point came when the ironclad USS Sumner under the command of Captain William T. Sampson rammed the flagship of the Spanish Fleet the Numancia. Struck by the Sumner’s ram below the waterline, the Numancia began to list heavily to its starboard side. However, before going down the Numancia was able to inflict serious damage on the charging USS Sumner. As the Sumner was withdrawing from the wounded Spanish ship, a shot from the Numancia pierced the American ironclad’s armor igniting the ships powder magazine. In an explosion heard as far away as Puerto Arturo, Cuba the Sumner was torn to pieces. The explosion of the Sumner so close to the Numancia was sighted as another reason for the quickness with which the Spanish flagship sunk beneath the waves, abandoned by her terrified crew.

The sinking of the Numancia caused great confusion amongst the remainder of the Spanish fleet. Rear Admiral Rodgers took advantage of this by ordering his remaining vessels to close with the discombobulated Spaniards. The last hour of the battle saw the Spanish break off the engagement but only after having suffered additional casualties.

In the end, the Battle of Ragged Island proved costly for both sides. The Spaniards lost their flagship as well as the Vitoria. The Sagunto was heavily damaged and had to be abandoned during the trip back to Spain. In addition to the loss of the Sumner the Steam Frigate USS Poseidon was also lost. Most of the other American ships at the battle also suffered considerable damage. However, the battle did force most of the Spanish Fleet to withdraw from Caribbean. Now with naval superiority, if only temporarily, the Americans could commence with the next step in their war plan, the invasion of Cuba.

 

[Mac Gregor]

The Invasion of Cuba
February-March, 1878 ​

An artist's anachronistic depiction from the early 20th Century of the American landings east of Santiago de Cuba​

Some historians have remarked that the American V Corps which invaded Cuba on February 20th, 1878 had one of the highest concentrations of military talent of any army in modern military history. All of the division and regimental commanders had seen extensive combat during the Civil War as had 60% of the V Corps’s officers and 45% of the NCOs. These leaders’ experiences in the Civil War gave them an enormous advantage when fighting the Spanish in Cuba.

Sailing from ports in Florida in mid February, the U.S. Army’s V Corps under the command of Major General James McPherson made a contested landing 15 miles east of Santiago de Cuba. The success of the landings was largely the result of two factors. The first being ample naval gunfire from the supporting U.S. Navy, and the tenacity of V Corps’s 1st Division commander Major General Ulysses S Grant being the second.

After serving with distinction during the Civil War, General Grant had left the Army and returned to Ohio with the intention of making his fortune in business. Sadly, Grant’s luck fared little better after the war than it had before and he soon returned to being heavily indebted. With his business ventures failing Grant was convinced by the local party machine to run as a Republican for governor of the state of Ohio. Grant served two terms as governor from 1870 to 1874, the second of which became mired in scandal. When hostilities broke out in 1877, Grant petitioned his friend and former subordinate Lt. General William T. Sherman for a position in the Army. In a move that angered many active army officers, Sherman gave Grant command of the 1st Infantry Division. Although Grant had commanded an entire army during the Civil War, he was glad for any position that would allow him to see action and escape his creditors.

In command of V Corps’s other division was the seasoned veteran Major General John Buford. Buford, who had earned a larger than life reputation fighting the Confederates as a cavalry officer, and stayed in the army after the Civil War, seeing considerable service on the western frontier. Operating directly under Buford was Brigadier General Philip Sheridan in command of the Calvary Division’s 1st Brigade. Of the three regimental commanders, George Armstrong Custer and J.E.B Stuart stand out the most, largely due to the bitter rivalry they developed. Both had fought on opposite sides during the Civil War and both were known for their sometimes reckless pursuit of glory. Stuart, who after the Civil War had become a planter and politician in Virginia, was greatly resented by Custer who thought that the inclusion of former Confederates in the war effort was merely the Republican Party’s way of trying to increase its voter base in the South.

Internal quarrels aside, the American invasion force was able over the next two weeks to expand its beachhead and begin laying siege to Santiago. However, taking the city would prove harder than any of these battle hardened leaders could imagine.

American Order of Battle

Commanding General of the United States Army:
Lt. General William T. Sherman

V Corps: Major General James McPherson

1 Division: Major General Ulysses S. Grant

1st Brigade: Brigadier General James Longstreet

7th U.S. Infantry Regiment
14th U.S. Infantry Regiment
56th U.S. Volunteer Infantry Regiment

2nd Brigade: Colonel Joshua Chamberlain

2nd U.S. Infantry Regiment
11th U.S. Infantry Regiment
24th (Colored) U.S. Infantry Regiment

3rd Brigade: Brigadier General David S. Stanley

9th U.S. Infantry Regiment
13th U.S. Infantry Regiment
6th U.S. Infantry Regiment

Calvary Division: Major General John Buford

1st Brigade: Brigadier General Philip Sheridan

3rd U.S. Calvary Regiment: Lt. Colonel George Armstrong Custer
1st U.S. Volunteer Calvary: Lt. Colonel J.E.B. Stuart
7th U.S. Calvary Regiment: Colonel Wesley Merritt

 

[Mac Gregor]

The Cuban Campaign
March - June, 1878


U.S Gatling guns near Siege of Santiago de Cuba
April 1878 ​

The Siege of Santiago de Cuba

Major General McPherson began besieging the Spanish held city of Santiago de Cuba in earnest in early March of 1878. The city was defended by roughly 12,000 Spanish troops and loyalist Cuban militia. The Spaniards centered their defense along a ridge of fortified hill tops located east of the city known as the San Juan Heights. The Americans gave each hill a numerical designation and began with a frontal attack. The initial American assaults on Hills Number 2 and Number 3 were both repulsed. Military historians often sight these engagements as the first major instance where forces armed exclusively with rifles firing self contained cartridges fought one another, the Americans and Spanish forces using the 1872 Winchester and .43 Spanish Remington rifles respectively. Despite this initial setback, a few days later in a spectacular display of daring Hill Number 3 was taken when Lt. Colonel J.E.B Stuart and his dismounted 1st Volunteer Calvary carried the position. Stuart's attack was aided by gunfire from a supporting battery of Gatling guns. Not to be outdone, Lt. Colonel Custer of the nearby 3rd Calvary led, much to the dismay of General Sheridan, a mounted charge against Hill Number 2. Custer captured the position but only after suffering considerable casualties.

As the Americans made slow but steady progress towards Santiago de Cuba through March and April they faced an enemy more deadly than Spanish bullets, Yellow Fever. The lack of clean drinking water only exacerbated the issue and soon thousands of American troops were incapacitated or dying. Despite the constant threat of disease, the considerable Civil War battlefield experience of the American army took a serious toll on the Spanish forces. Further successful American assaults eventually lead to the capture of Santiago de Cuba on April 26th, 1878. The next day, General McPherson held a victory parade though the streets of the city where, as he would state years later in his memoirs, “our forces were very well received by the long oppressed population. The streets of the city were so chocked with dancing peasants and recently freed slaves that it took over three hours to reach the city’s central Plaza.”

Stuart and Custer’s Overland Campaign

After news of the fall of Santiago de Cuba had reached Washington, Lt. General Sherman and Secretary of War Robert Lincoln issued their next set of instructions to General McPherson. McPherson’s 1st Corp would be split. Most of the infantry along with the 7th Cavalry would be transported by ship to invest the island’s capital of Havana. Meanwhile Stuart and Custer’s cavalry regiments would be detached and sent on an overland campaign westwards through the island’s lightly defended interior. Stuart and Custer’s columns were meant to support each other, moving west towards Havana liberating Cuban cities and freeing the island’s slaves as they went. If Havana had not already fallen by the time they reached the island’s capital, they were to join in the final assault.


Cooperation between Custer and Stuart broke down almost immediately. Despite having orders that they should support each other’s advance the situation soon turned into a mad dash towards Havana. The two commanders and their respective cavalry regiments competed to see who could liberate the most towns, free the most slaves, and especially cover the most ground. The open rivalry between these two legendary commanders was so well known that bets were placed as far away as Moscow as to who would be the first to reach Havana.

 

[Mac Gregor]

Victory Over Spain​

Battle of Havana, 1878​

The Battle of Havana

The last major engagement of the war was the Battle of Havana. Major General James McPherson started encircling the island’s capital in the middle of May, 1878. American forces were bolstered by thousands of Cuban freedom fighters who, with American victory in sight, flocked to the Stars and Stripes. Havana however was strongly defended. The Spanish believed that if they could bleed the Americans a little longer and let the yellow fever continue to decimate their ranks, the United States would discuss a negotiated peace. For the next three weeks, the U.S. Navy bombarded Havana as McPherson’s forces continued to encircle the city. In what would become common place in later wars, McPherson made excellent use of trenches to protect his forces from the defending Spaniards. Trenches however did not negate the fact that the Americans were making painfully slow progress towards taking the city.

On June 2nd 1878, Lt. Colonel J.E.B. Stuart and his exhausted 1st Volunteer Calvary triumphantly joined the besieging American army. Upon his arrival, Major General Ulysses S. Grant commented to Stuart that it was “a confounded miracle that the North ever won the War of the Rebellion with the South possessing horsemen such as yourself.” Lt. Colonel Custer’s 3rd Calvary arrived at the American camp two days later. It has been reported that Custer was so angry upon learning that Stuart had beat him to Havana that, as one of his subordinates put it, “the good Colonel nearly ripped his long hair out in disgust.”

The finally assault on the city began the morning of June 21, 1878. American forces launched a withering four hour artillery barrage on the city’s defenses before ordering a full frontal assault. The Spanish forces put up fierce resistance but were steadily pushed back into the city in what proved to be a determined urban defense.

A few hours into the battle, in a move that has often been criticized by military historians, General McPherson ordered Stuart’s cavalry regiment to exploit a gap in the Spanish defenses and rush into the center of the city. Stuart made surprising good progress until he reached Havana’s Plaza de la Catedral in the center of the city where the 1st Volunteer Cavalry came under heavy fire. Amongst the gunfire, J.E.B. Stuart was mortally wounded when a Spanish bullet pierced his lower abdomen. Stuart was then dragged into the nearby Catedral de San Cristobal, which housed the mortal remains of Christopher Columbus, where the remnants of his cavalry regiment had taken refuge.

Upon seeing smoke rise from the center of the city, Custer, whose 3rd Calvary had been kept in reserve during the battle, led his regiment without orders into the embattled city. Although Custer would later state that he did this because he “could sense that American lives were in peril,” it is more likely that he charged into Havana against orders because he believed that the battle would soon be won and the chance to win glory would be over. Regardless, the 3rd Calvary did reach the hard pressed survivors of Stuart’s regiment. Custer led his men in a dismounted charge through the Plaza, shooting his way into the besieged Catedral de San Cristobal. It what now has become a famous exchange, Custer upon seeing the dying J.E.B. Stuart doffed his hat and said “ Sir, I have arrived!” to which the ailing Stuart replied “ Yes, but as always, I was here first.” Both men laughed at the absurdity of situation after which Custer, with the assistance from one of his troopers, a 19 year old corporal from New York named Theodore Roosevelt, carried Stuart to the top of the Cathedral where together they unfurled the first American flag to fly over the city.

These two daring, if not reckless, cavalry charges into the city center proved too much for the Spaniards who officially surrendered later that day. Interestingly, amongst the captured Spanish was an American named William W. Loring from North Carolina. Loring had served as a colonel in the Union army before fighting for the Confederate Army as a general during the Civil War. Following the South’s defeat, Loring was even briefly employed as a military advisor by the Ottoman Sultan, before Turkish financial constraints made Loring seek employment with the Spanish government. Despite pleas from Loring that he had not “actively participated in the resent hostilities” against American forces he was nonetheless tried and hanged as a traitor ten days later.

William W. Long in the Confederate and Ottoman Armies​

The capture of the city was officially celebrated three days later with a massive parade through the city where, as had almost become customary at this point, the Battle Cry of Freedom was sung with the appropriate lyrical changes tailored for the Spanish.

Yes we'll rally round the flag, boys, we'll rally once again,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom,
We will rally from the Southland, we'll gather from the North,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!

(Chorus)
The Union forever! Hurrah, boys, hurrah!
Down with the tyrants, and up with the stars;
While we rally round the flag, boys, rally once again,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!

We are springing to the call with a million freemen more,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!
And we'll fill our vacant ranks of our brothers gone before,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!
Chorus
We will welcome to our numbers the loyal, true and brave,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!
And although he may be poor, not a man shall be a slave,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!
Chorus
So we're springing to the call from the East and from the West,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!
And we'll hurl the evil crew from the land we love best,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!
Chorus

The Treaty of Amsterdam (1878)

With the fall of Havana coming a week after the capture of Puerto Rico it became clear that the war was over. Still, it took over a month before the final peace treaty was signed in the Netherlands. The Treaty of Amsterdam was official signed on July 25, 1878. Its stipulations were simple; Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the rest of Spain’s West Indian possessions were to be ceded to the United States without compensation. Although some of the American delegates pressed for the annexation of some of Spain’s Pacific territories, the lack of American activity in the Pacific during the war undermined this claimed.

Effects of the War

The Spanish-American War had a large affect on both nations. For the United States, it was a major step in healing the wounds of the Civil War as Southerners and Northerners both fought valiantly against a foreign enemy. The United States also greatly increased its Caribbean holdings which now included Cuba, Santo Domingo, Puerto Rico, and a few other minor islands. The United States would also soon undergo several military reforms in light of lessons learned from the war. This victory though had not come cheap. The war, although lasting less than 11 months, cost the Americans 1,352 men killed and many more wounded or wrecked by disease.

Spain however, suffered much worse, losing an estimated 7,800 men killed and wounded. Furthermore having lost the the last remnants of their New World empire, the ruling military junta was overthrown and Spain was plunged yet again into civil war.

In the end, the Spanish-American War marked an important turning point in American history. For the first time, the United States had soundly beat a European Power and proved to the world that it was a force to be reckoned with.

 

[Mac Gregor]

The 1880s
Domestic Developments​

The 1880s were an eventful time for the United States as the nation continued to industrialize and settle its western territories.

The 1880 Presidential Election and the Cuban Question

In November of 1880, President Arthur Boreman was reelected by a narrow margin over Democratic candidate Thomas S. Bayard of Delaware and his running mate Samuel J. Randall of Pennsylvania. Boreman’s triumph was mainly attributed to the victory over Spain two years earlier. However, the issue of what to do with America’s newfound Caribbean holdings divided the nation. Some, mostly Radical Republicans, wanted to grant the territories full independence. Other’s feared the addition of more non-whites into the nation, but still wanted to reap the financial benefits. These politicians, mostly Democrats, favored a policy of lording over the islands as protectorates. Boreman however wished for the islands to one day join the Union, stating that they “rightfully belong to America as it was American blood which paid for their freedom.” Furthermore, America had intervened at the tail end of Cuba’s troubled fight for freedom against the Spanish, and as such few native leaders were left to lead an independent Cuba. With this in mind, and by two close votes in Congress, Cuba and Puerto Rico joined Santo Domingo as U.S. territories. Although there were some in Cuba which resented being annexed by the United States, many saw it as the only alternative to the anarchy and civil war which had prevailed for most of the 1870s.

The Panic of 1883

A severe but short lived economic depression hit the United States in 1883. Historians mostly cite over speculation on American gold reserves as the downturn's cause. However, the economy rebounded by the end of 1885, and continued to grow rapidly well into the 1890s.

The Democrats Return to Power: The Election of President Samuel J. Randall

Samuel J. Randall
Democrat from Pennsylvania
19th President of the United States of America

With the nation in the grips of a severe economic recession, American voters decided that the time was ripe for a political shakeup. The 1884 elections saw the first Democratic President elected since James Buchanan in 1856. Samuel J. Randall, an influential congressman from Pennsylvania, and his vice presidential candidate David B. Hill of New York, easily beat the Republican ticket of former Vice President James Blaine of Maine and Chester A. Arthur of New York.

Randall proved to be a popular president, winning reelection in 1888 against Republican challenger John Sherman of Ohio, the younger brother of Lt. General William T Sherman. In foreign policy Randall pursued a more isolationist path than his Republican predecessor, largely keeping America out of foreign entanglements. President Randall was a moderate in domestic affairs, leaving issues such as civil rights, statehood for the Caribbean territories, and women’s suffrage largely untouched. Arguably the most enduring legacy of the Randall Administration was the repeated allegations of corruption and scandals which plagued his years in office.

States Admitted to the Union during the 1880s

Name: Dakota Capital: Lincoln City Date of Statehood: March 6, 1885 Postal Abbreviation: DK

Name: Washington Capital: Olympia Date of Statehood: February 23, 1886 Postal Abbreviation: WA

Name: Jefferson Capital: Shermanburg Date of Statehood: November 17, 1886 Postal Abbreviation: JF

​

Name: Pasapa Capital: Beryl Date of Statehood: March 16, 1887 Postal Abbreviation: PS

Name: Laramie Capital: Fort Laramie Date of Statehood: July 3, 1887 Postal Abbreviation: LR

Name: Absaroka Capital: Boreman Date of Statehood: November 5, 1888 Postal Abbreviation: AB

 

[Mac Gregor]

Expansion of Imperial France ​

Under Napoleon IV, the Second French Empire prospered during the 1880s by continuing to industrialize and expand at a rapid pace. France purchased the Philippine Islands in 1879 from the cash strapped Spanish republican government that was then temporarily in power. France also gained control of Egypt during a brief war in 1883 after a series of anti-European riots, which France claimed were orchestrated by the unruly Khedive Tewfik Pasha, led to a successful French invasion. Napoleon IV relished following in the footsteps of his great-uncle and even visited the conquered province in 1885. Possession of Egypt also guaranteed French control of the Suez Canal of which Britain was a partial stockholder. Although officially the United Kingdom supported the French invasion, many historians have cited the 1883 Franco-Egyptian War as an important beginning step in the deterioration of Anglo-French relations.

During the 1880s, Imperial France strengthened its alliances with other empires. The Austro-Hungarian Empire remained chief amongst France’s allies who, like France, wished to see Italy and Prussia’s ambitions kept in checked. In the Americas, France found a receptive ally in the Empire of Brazil who welcomed French investment in exchange for Brazilian natural resources. It was also during the 1880s that France began to align its self with the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans saw the French as a potential counterweight to the British who were expanding their holdings in Arabia, and to the Russians, the Turks' age old enemy to the north.

 

[Mac Gregor]

1890-1895
Foreign and Domestic Developments​

David B. Hill
Democrat from New York
Twentieth President of the United States ​

The Administration of President David B. Hill

On February 2nd, 1890 President Samuel J. Randal suffered a fatal heart attack. At 61 years old Randal was the third U.S. President to die in office following William Henry Harrison and Zachary Taylor. Succeeding him to the Presidency was Vice President David B. Hill a 49 year old Democrat from New York. President Hill would preside over a booming economy in what historians would later call the “Roaring 90s.” In the 1892 Presidential election David B. Hill and his running mate John M. Palmer of Illinois easily beat the Republican ticket of Thomas B. Reed of Maine and William McKinley of Ohio. Hill’s time in office proved to be largely uneventful, and he is mainly remembered for starting construction on the Nicaraguan Canal and the 1893 annexation of the Hawaiian Islands.

States entered into the Union during the 1890s

Utah-1892

Foreign Developments

Central American Canals: In 1891, after years of dithering and false starts, Napoleon IV officially sanctioned the Imperial Isthmian Company which began construction on a canal to link the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans in Panama, Columbia. With France already in effective control of the Suez Canal, Napoleon IV hoped that this second canal would enhance French prestige in Latin American and give France an advantage in their growing naval race with Great Britain. The United States, who greatly resented the French presence in Central America, started construction on their own canal in Nicaragua in 1893.

Scramble for Africa: During the 1890s Africa continued to be divided up by the European powers of France, Great Britain, Portugal, and Belgium. France dominated North and West Africa while Britain held a vast swath of the continent running from the Cape of Good Hope to southern Sudan. By 1896 all of Africa had been subdued by foreign powers with the exceptions of Liberia, Ethiopia, Morocco, and the Boer Republics. As available territory in Africa shrunk, tensions amongst the competing colonial powers rose adding fire to the mounting tensions on the continent.

Parliamentarianism in Russia: In 1894 Alexander II of Russia, in one of the last acts of his reign, granted vastly increased powers to the Imperial Duma which had been established ten years earlier. Although the effects of this shift in power would take many years to be fully felt, in later years historians would view this as an important step in the liberalization of Russian politics and a turning point in Russian history from autocracy towards constitutional monarchy. Alexander II died in his bed a few months later being succeeding to the throne by his first born son Nicholas Alexandrovich Romanov. Known as Nicholas II, the Emperor was the first Russian ruler to drop the word “Autocrat” from his title and like his father continued to modernize and reform Russian society.

1895 Coronation of Nicholas II

 

[Mac Gregor]

The 1896 Presidential Election ​

The 1896 Democratic National Convention in Baltimore, Maryland​

In one of the great political surprises of American political history, Samuel Randal declined to seek a second term as President of the United States. This shocked many of his contemporaries as the young and popular Democrat was almost assured reelection. However, Randal had had his fill of politics and with the deteriorating health of his wife he made up his mind to retire to New York. If Randal’s decision wasn’t surprising enough the presidential heir apparent, Vice President Palmer, was terminally ill with stomach cancer and therefore also out of the race. This threw the Democratic nomination for president wide open. Indeed, political scientist and historians in later days would label the 1896 Democratic convention in Baltimore, Maryland as one of the most contentious in the nation’s history. The plethora of candidates throwing their hats in the ring included men of every stripe such as career politicians like Richard P. Bland of Missouri and populists like Arthur Sewall of Maine. However, the Democrats attention soon turned to a man who knew how to promote himself and exploit a hectic situation such as this, a man named George Armstrong Custer.

In 1896 Custer was possible one the best known names in America. He possessed a long and colorful career. Rising to the rank of major during the Civil War, Custer continued to advance his career and reputation as a determined soldier fighting in the Indian Wars in the American West. Custer really made a name for himself in the Spanish American War where he raced J.E.B. Stuart across the length of Cuba from Santiago to Havana. Following the victory over Spain, Custer, now a Brigadier General, retired from the Army and returned to his home state of Ohio. Over the next 12 years Custer would pursue a variety of business ventures all of which ended in failure. The General’s luck however turned for the better in 1892 when the local Democrat political machine chose him to run for Governor. Custer won the election beating out incumbent governor and former Republican nominee for Vice President, William McKinley.

Now in 1896, Custer fought for the Democratic nomination with, as one of his contemporaries put it, “such a zeal that you would think he is fighting Red Indians or Spaniards.” Custer stayed away from the divisive issues being debated an instead ran on his reputation as a military hero. In the end it proved to be enough and on the sixteenth ballot he was chosen as the party’s nominee. The November elections against Republican candidates Mathew S. Quay of Pennsylvania for President and William B. Allison of Iowa for Vice President proved to be nearly as tough. When the votes were finally tallied, Custer and his running mate Horace Boise of Iowa, beat out their Republican rivals by the narrowest margin in a presidential election to date. Despite the abounding allegations of fraud perpetrated by Democrat party bosses, George Armstrong Custer was sworn in as the twenty-first President of the United States on an unusually cold morning on March 4, 1897.




George Armstrong Custer
Democrat from Ohio
Twenthy-First President of the United States

 

[Mac Gregor]

1897-1899
The Custer Years ​

The White House in 1897​

Custer as President

Coming into office by the narrowest of margins, the Custer Administration was never fully able to shake off the sense of scandal that plagued his years in office. Much of what has been written about President Custer has concentrated on his supposed peculiarities and eccentricities. Indeed some go so far as to try and paint the 60 year old Custer as a senile old General who blundered his way through the political scene. While it is true that Custer did have some odd traits, such as insisting that people address him by the odd title of General-President and not Mr. President, it is easy to lose sight of some of Custer’s accomplishments during his first few months in office. The accomplishments include such things as the 1897 Military Reform Act, which laid the ground work for American military expansion in the 1900s.

The States of Oklahoma and Sequoya

Another one of Custer’s major accomplishments was successfully admitting the states of Mahetane and Sequoya into the Union. Custer, whose feelings on Native Americans were always complex, felt that the Indians were owed at least one state of their own and not confined to dingy reservations. However, the idea of admitting the Mahetane Territory and Indian Territory as two separate states drew fire from both political parties. Many Republicans didn’t want the states introduced because they would likely vote Democrat while some Democrats opposed the notion because Sequoya would be the first state to be dominated by non-whites. In the end however, Custer was able pass the measures threw Congress with the States of Mahetane and Sequoyah both entering the Union on November 9, 1897. The cities of Tapley and Tallasie were chosen as teh state captials of Mahetane and Sequoyah respectively.

Flag of Mahetane

​

County map of the State of Sequoyah


The Depression of 1897

The roaring 1890s came to an abrupt halt when the stock market crashed on “Black Thursday” November 14, 1897. The Depression that followed was one of the worst in American history and had a profound effect on the country for years to come. President Custer was slow to react to the depression expecting, as many of the experts did at that time, that the economy would fix itself. However, the depression continued to worsen and was even exacerbated by the protective tariffs that President Custer and the Democrat controlled congress passed in an effort to protect the economy.

Foreign Developments

Japan

Between Dec. 1896 and Oct 1897 the Empire of Japan fought against the Empire of China for influence over the Korean Peninsula in the First Sino-Japanese War. Japan emerged victorious and in the ensuing peace treaty received Formosa as well as some other Pacific islands. Furthermore China relinquished its control of the Korean Peninsula. Japan would officially annex Korea in 1899.

Rising Tensions in Europe

As the availability for expansion outside of Europe dwindled and the economies plummeted with the 1897 Depression, tensions rose as many began to think that a general European war was becoming inevitable. Europe was quickly dividing itself into two opposing camps. One headed by the French, consisted of Imperial France, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire. The other Alliance system was composed of the Russian Empire, and the Kingdoms of Italy and Prussia. Although all the principal nations involved were monarchies, the Russo-Prussian-Italian Alliance was becoming more politically progressive than their continental rivals who practiced government in a slightly more autocratic fashion. The smaller nations in Europe were caught in the middle and were faced with making the difficult decision of pursing neutrality, as the Low Countries and Scandinavia did, or purse their own alliances with the Great Powers as the Balkan nations would do. As the 19th Century drew to a close the United Kingdom continued to try and maintain an uneasy distance from the ever increasingly dangerous European system of alliances.

 

[Mac Gregor]

The 1900 Presidential Election​

Part 1: The Republican Challenger Robert Todd Lincoln​

Robert Todd Lincoln
At Harvard Law
1865​

The eldest and only surviving son of President Abraham Lincoln, Robert Todd Lincoln grew up with the enormous weight and expectations of having such an illustrious father. Born on August 1st, 1843 in Springfield Illinois, Robert Lincoln would become the first of the Lincoln family to attend college graduating from Harvard in 1864. His schooling did prevent him from serving in uniform during the Civil War a fact which Robert regretted for the rest of his life. After graduating from Harvard Law, Robert Lincoln practiced law in Springfield until he was elected to the United States House of Representatives as a Republican in 1872 at the young age of 29. After serving four years as a Congressman, Robert Lincoln accepted the position of Secretary of War under President Arthur Boreman. It was during his stint as Secretary of War during the Spanish American War of 1877-1878 that Lincoln proved his genius for organization and launched Robert Lincoln to international prominence. Following the war with Spain, Robert Lincoln returned to Illinois and was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1882. Lincoln would serve as President Pro-tempore of the Senate for two years until the Democrats gained power in 1884. With the Democrats firmly in power Lincoln chose not to stay in Washington politics and declined to run for reelection. He did decide however, to run for Governor of Illinois and was elected for the first of his unprecedented three terms as Governor in 1888.

Robert Todd Lincoln
As Secretary of War
1878​

By the time of the 1900 Presidential election, Robert Lincoln was one of the best qualified presidential candidates in American history having served as a Congressman, Secretary of War, Senator, and Governor in a political career that stretched back nearly 30 years. Throughout his years in office Robert Lincoln had developed a political philosophy that in years to come would be termed as Lincolnism or Lincolnian-Republicanism. The core tenants of which are usually defined by political scientists as

1) America having a proactive role on the world stage
2) Political rights for women and ethnic minorities.
3) Strict enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine and the notion of Manifest Destiny
4) Support for foreign democratic governments.
5) A robust military and strong national defense.
6) A free trade and a pro business economic climate while also targeting monopolies and protecting consumers.

By the end of the 1890’s Lincoln had become deeply troubled by the state of the country. Lincoln blamed Custer and the years of Democratic dominance for the ongoing economic depression. Lincoln also believed that Custer and his democratic predecessors had ignored America’s military and allowed foreign powers to encroach on the Western Hemisphere (i.e. France in Panama). And although Lincoln could have easily secured a fourth term as Governor of Illinois he decided to throw his hat into the crowded ring of Republican presidential candidates. Lincoln’s uniqueness soon stood out and at the 1900 Republican National Convention in St. Louis, Lincoln quickly emerged as the frontrunner and was overwhelmingly selected as the party’s choice on the first ballot. Lincoln’s acceptance speech would become one of the most well known speeches in American political history declaring that “the Twentieth Century will be America’s Century” and that “the day will soon come when this great republic will take its rightful place at the forefront of free nations.” The 57 year old Lincoln ended his passionate speech by declaring “with the Almighty God smiling upon our endeavors we cannot and will not fail! The Constitution and Union Forever!"

Robert Todd Lincoln
Republican Candidate for President
1900​

 

[Mac Gregor]

The 1900 Presidential Election
Part 2: President Custer’s Last Stand​

The Democratic National Convention

At the 1900 Democratic National Convention in Cleveland, Custer was able to secure re-nomination as the party’s choice for president after beating out multiple disenchanted Democratic challengers. The ailing Vice President Boise however was replaced with Senator Thomas J. Stuart of Virginia the eldest son of former Colonel J.E.B. Stuart as the Democrats’ vice presidential candidate.

The Campaign

During the 1900 Presidential Election the Democrats sought to mobilize their base against Lincoln whom they saw as a “Radical Republican” and adopted a very regressive platform favoring protective tariffs, isolationism, and no change on the political rights of women and Negros. The Republicans, who ran a very progressive and reform minded campaign, were also aided greatly by Lincoln’s famous last name and used it to their advantage as demonstrated by their 1900 campaign song “Lincoln and Liberty” which was an updated version of Abraham Lincoln’s 1860 campaign song.

If Lincoln was the acme of passion, intellect, and energy, Custer was the embodiment of the direct opposite. Compared to their Republican challengers Custer and Stuart seemed lethargic and mentally utterly outmatched as shown when Lincoln trounced Custer is a series of wildly reprinted debates. The Republican candidate for Vice President Nathan Goff Jr., a close friend of Lincoln and former Secretary of the Navy and congressman from Virginia, would also handily outwit his counterpart, Thomas J. Stuart, in the first ever vice presidential debate in American history an occurrence that would not happen again for 32 years.

Republicans Victorious

When the votes were finally tallied Lincoln and his fellow Republicans won in one of the largest electoral sweeps in U.S. history. Lincoln carried nearly every state with a few exceptions in the Deep South and the State of Sequoyah. The Republicans now controlled the White House and both houses of Congress for the first time since 1882. In what would become known as the “Spirit of 1900” Robert Todd Lincoln assumed the office of president amid jubilation and equipped with a mandate for change.

Robert Todd Lincoln
Republican from Illonios
22nd President of the United States​

Custer’s Legacy

After his defeat, President George Armstrong Custer would retire to private life back in his home state of Ohio. Custer would harbor a deep since of betrayal by the American people until his death in 1905, having remarked to a friend “it would have been better if I been scalped fighting on the plains than to have been slain by the likes of politicians.” Custer has often been ranked as one of the worst presidents in American history. Indeed, Custer’s failings are all the more striking when compared with the accomplishments of the Lincoln Administration. However, Custer’s reputation has improved somewhat in recent years mainly due to Brian Darr’s 1993 documentary film Custer: the Soldier President which stressed Custer’s accomplishments during the Civil and Spanish American Wars and the 1897 Military Reform Act which would be of enormous benefit to the United States during the coming war.

 

[Mac Gregor]

Latin America
at the Dawn of the
Twentieth Century​

United Mexican States: Mexico has experienced a long and sustained period of growth sense the withdrawal of French forces in 1865. Mexico continues to industrialize at a respectable pace and free and fair elections are the norm not the exception. Mexico maintains very close and positive relations with the United States of America.

Central America: This region is composed of the nations of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. These republics, while maintaining their own governments, are to a large extent dominated by the United States and have seen heavy American investment in the past few decades. Nicaragua is host to the American-Nicaraguan Canal Company which is continuing to build the Nicaraguan Canal to bridge the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

United States of Colombia: Colombia has since the early 1880’s been ruled by a repressively conservative military government. The Colombian government is to a large extent supported by their chief ally France who is allowed to harbor naval vessels and troops in Colombian ports. French contributions are made in order to safe guard their investments in the Canal under construction on the Panamanian Isthmus.

Republic of Venezuela: Venezuela has become increasingly unstable over the past three decades due to economic stagnation and border disputes with neighboring British Guiana. Liberals favor closer relations with the United States of America while conservatives seek help from the French and their Colombian and Brazilian allies in any potential conflict with Great Britain.

Republic of Ecuador: Small and economically stagnant, Ecuador for the moment retains a relatively stable government, but continues to have disputes with Peru over the precise location of their jungle border.

Empire of Brazil: Latin America’s only monarchy, the Empire of Brazil is the region’s most powerful state. Currently ruled by Empress Isabela I and her husband a French nobleman the Prince-Consort Gaston, Brazil remains a staunch French ally as the Empire of France has poured millions of Francs into Brazil in exchange for massive amounts of raw materials and agricultural products. Having been the last nation in the western hemisphere to abolish slavery in 1887, Brazil continues to favor conservative domestic policies while at the same time seeking industrial growth, military expansion, and a larger role to play on the world stage.

Isabel I
Constitutional Empress and Perpetual Defender of Brazil
1901

Argentine Republic: The second most powerful state in South America, Argentina has experienced considerable economic growth in recent decades. The Argentine government is highly suspicious of their Brazilian neighbors, and their French allies, and view themselves as the regions legitimate republican leader. As such Argentina maintains close relations with the United Kingdom and to a lesser extent the United States of America.

Republic of Bolivia: A deeply impoverished country, Bolivia is still reeling from the loss of its coastline to Chile during a war in the 1880’s. Currently ruled by a military dictatorship, Bolivia is seeking help from any nation who is willing to loan it money.

Republic of Peru: Although still resentful of its defeat at the hands of Chile during the 1880’s, Peru has rebounded in recent years. Its fragile democratic government has passed several reforms although the Peruvian military retains considerable power in the government.

State of Paraguay: After suffering a devastating defeat in the Paraguayan War (1865-1868), Paraguay has remained little more than a Brazilian puppet being both politically and economically dominated by its larger northern neighbor.

Oriental Republic of Uruguay: Uruguay pursues a strict policy of neutrality as it is sandwiched between the two rival powers of Brazil and Argentina.

Republic of Chile: Having enlarged its northern territory during wars with Peru and Bolivia, Chile is a rising power in South America. Chile is fairly prosperous but continues to have border disputes with neighboring Argentina and Bolivia. Chile seeks to strengthen its ties with the United States of America.