Of Rajahs and Hornbills: A timeline of Brooke Sarawak

[Al-numbers]

It should be interesting to see how far Abu Bakar goes with his reforms now that he's got them to an earlier start. A lot will depend on how much breathing space the imperial powers give him, but if he can play them off successfully, then Johor might get to modernize on its own terms.

By the early 1870's Great Britain would have started installing Residents in the Malay sultanates and intervene in state affairs, so the clock is already ticking for Abu Bakar. ITTL, the British might intervene earlier due to the whole Rome/Singapore-Batavia wedge. On the other hand, he also knows that everyone wants a piece of of the East Indies, so playing them off while pretending to kiss up to British Singapore might be in order. It's going to be tough for Johor, but then again, modernization is always tough, and the overall payoff might be worth all the struggle.

Oh boy, there's so much potential stuff hidden in these three short paragraphs... I for one am looking forward to how the German entry into the world of colonial powers will go (and where they will end up at). Also a "Red Sea port" can be so much

German entry into colonialism will be a veeery weird process when compared to OTL, at least in the East Indies. In fact, I would say that both Germany and Italy would get saddled with the phrase "It NEVER gets what it wants," when someone speaks of TTL's Southeast Asian colonialism.

Now i'm curious about the other incident

A red sea port for Italy can mean an interest on just Eritrea (or part of it)...and this can create some nasty problem in the future. OTL the italian colonial troops took the city of Cassala in Sudan from Mhadi forces and the original plan was to keep it and not give it back to the Egyptian/British but the defeat at Adua caused a general reatreat on Eritrea original border.
Taking in consideration the scenario where Italy just grab Eritrea and things go more or less like OTL this can be a scenario where, while both powers really don't want to start a war for a African city, relationships can become very soured (like Fashoda with the French).

On the other hand a diminished presence on Africa of the italians mean a possible Mahdist expansion on Abyssinia (attempted other time but the locals stopped them) as the Italian colony functioned as buffer (one of the reason for the British to help the local italian effort, apart hinder the French one, was to have someone that will help against the Mhadi).
The British in that case can try to prop up Abyssinia or/and get all Somalia under their control (a German colonial effort there can be used as Wild card)

Let's just say the other incident will take the public by storm... literally.

Let's see... by this point, the lands surrounding Assab Bay might already be in Italian hands via the Rubattino Shipping Company, but there wasn't a substantial Italian settlement until the 1880's. ITTL, there might be more of an Italian presence due to Rome looking eastwards and needing a stopover port to resupply and regroup. To protect the area, the Italians might target the highlands surrounding Assab, but the British might check them by bolstering Abbysinia and Khedivite Egypt (ITTL under a different, less spendthrift Khedive) and, as you say, allow a German presence to muddle things up for Rome.*

But then again, this doesn't figure in the Mahdist Revolt (ITTL might be by a different person, but with the same-ish ideals) nor does this take in the Ethiopian emperor or the Italian generals, who might do something like the French in the Sino-French War, fighting on in defiance of orders from home.

*Aha! a way to Get Germany involved in Africa and not in the East Indies! ... at least in the short run.

 

[Al-numbers]

...And once again I have to be the robotic parrot again. I've just enrolled in a short semester in a local university, and work is already starting to pile up. So updates are going to be really slow this year. I really don't want to cut this TL loose, and I still think about all the ideas I want to write down about the Brookes and Sarawak, but it's gonna take a longer while to get everything sorted over here.

I'm really sorry to all of you who've subscribed to this and expect weekly updates or so. I really do. I can only say this: I will still write this TL whenever I can, and I will try to at least take this TL to the end of this world's Great War.

Until then, stay curious.

 

[Archangel]

...And once again I have to be the robotic parrot again. I've just enrolled in a short semester in a local university, and work is already starting to pile up. So updates are going to be really slow this year. I really don't want to cut this TL loose, and I still think about all the ideas I want to write down about the Brookes and Sarawak, but it's gonna take a longer while to get everything sorted over here.

I'm really sorry to all of you who've subscribed to this and expect weekly updates or so. I really do. I can only say this: I will still write this TL whenever I can, and I will try to at least take this TL to the end of this world's Great War.

Until then, stay curious.

Focus on your studies, sketchdoodle. We'll wait.

 

[chr92]

Focus on your studies, sketchdoodle. We'll wait.

Seconded. And good luck!

 

[Al-numbers]

Managed to churn this out. I'm... back?

Anton De Rycker, The Hornbill and the Lion: Dutch-Brooke Relations (Leiden University Press: 1982)

...While it is safe to say that the 1870s were a time of détente for Batavia and Kuching, it wasn't without a few snags. Though the Dutch and the Brookes had signed a mutual agreement regarding their positions in Borneo in the Treaties of 1870 and 71', it took another few years before both sides actively began to normalize relations with each other.

In fact, for a while, both Powers tried to resume their quarrels as if the past two years never actually happened. However, the ascendency of a more watchful British Singapore, coupled with the rise of Great Power politics in the region, forced Sarawak and the DEI to band together to protect their respective interests in Borneo. The urge to drive off the last remaining head-hunting Dayaks from their borders was also an overarching factor, as was the desire to secure their areas of interest for inland trade, particularly for Batavia.

Sarawak started first. In late 1874, Charles Brooke planned an anti-headhunting expedition around the upper reaches of the Batang Lupar river. Before it started, Kuching sent word of its intentions to Batavia and Buitenzorg, sending maps and plans of their intended "path of warfare", as well as requesting permission to cross into Dutch Borneo "should the situation be deemed necessary". However, Batavia vacillated over the proposals and the issue became dragged for more than a week owing to long dialogues between Java and the Dutch Residents of West Borneo. His patience wearing thin, Charles went on the expedition anyways before an answer could be given.

The political bickering that resulted was both loud and predictable, but it was also the first time Sarawak tried to – at least – actively inform its neighbour about its punitive intentions ahead of time. Besides that, it also opened both Dutch and Sarawak officials to the idea of actually bridging the diplomatic canyon between the two capitals. Realizing this, Batavia tried the same tactic when it organized its own punitive expedition up the Kapuas rivers the following year, and they were encouraged further when the Sarawak government gave it's permission to cross their territory after only a week of waiting (though Charles Brooke also warned all of his Dayak allies to stay clear of the Dutch in any case).

This slowly opened the door for better relations between the two Powers, exchanging information on the locations of Dayak settlements and expedition paths. Besides that, both sides actively began to court their native allies, telling them to move away from the respective border areas to prevent fatal misunderstandings (as well as to prevent the true head-hunters from seeking shelter amongst their brethren). It will take until 1879 for Batavia and Kuching to be truly open about their “pacification campaigns” to one another, but it was a marked shift that neither side wanted to change.

The upswing in relations took place in another way as well. As the decade progressed, Sarawak became an ascendant trade hub for spices, goods, and immigrants from all over the East Indies and China. Local Malay, Chinese, and Dayak traders would sail from Kuching to Dutch Sambas or Singkawang to exchange cloths, pepper, porcelain, and artisanal goods. Before long, a small network of traders and merchants began establishing themselves in Kuching and West Borneo, spurred on by increasing immigration (especially by southern Chinese subgroups due to Sarawak’s Kangchu System) and the Brooke kingdom's riverine infrastructural growth.

Originally, the Dutch took a somewhat dim view of another trade competitor in the East Indies, particularly one that was involved in spices. However, the ascendancy of nearby Johor and the difficulty of enforcing Dutch products on certain areas on interest brought an important lesson home for Batavia: Goods are attractive. By 1866, the DEI began toning down its criticism of Sarawak and it’s cash-crop economic policies, as well as allowing the burgeoning trade networks between Kuching in West Borneo. In return, both polities began clamping down on inter-state smuggling activates, particularly for cheap Sarawak salt – an important commodity for the Ibans of the northern Sentarum region.

However, there was more than just artisanal goods and salt that made their way between the two polities. Historians also posited that it was around this decade that the mysterious Lanfang Republic played it's last cards. More than just a self-declared state by Chinese immigrants in Dutch Borneo (before it was Dutch-conquered, no less), the Lanfang Republic was polity that faced destruction and incorporation into the vast expanse that was the DEI by the 1870's. During this decade, there was a flurry of contact between Lanfang and the Chinese traders of Singapore and Kuching, hoping for a way out from its predicament.

However, such contact was kept hidden from the public eye. The British, Dutch and Sarawak officials had little idea of such contacts happening through their traders, or of the effects of such relationships between states. However, considering the political happenings of the decade – particularly during the mid-1870s – it was easy to get side-tracked, especially with what was happening in Aceh, New Guinea and in Northern Borneo…


____________________________________

Notes:

1) Most of what happened up above did happen over the 1870's and 80's, but at a much slower pace. ITTL, the treaties of 1870 and 71', the budding cooperation between Singapore and Batavia, the resolving of Sarawak and tthe Dutch's positons over Borneo, and the presence of foreign powers in the region (and not just Italy. There's another update coming...) speeded up the warming relations.

 

[Archangel]

It's a pity that the Lanfang Republic could not be absorbed by Sarawak.

 

[Jonathan Edelstein]

It's a pity that the Lanfang Republic could not be absorbed by Sarawak.

Maybe it will ITTL, although that would destroy the growing detente between Sarawak and the Dutch. More likely Lanfang will get absorbed by the DEI and many of its leaders will go into exile in Sarawak and Johor, affecting commerce and politics there. Or maybe sketchdoodle has something else planned.

 

[Ridwan Asher]

sketchdoodle does aim for Sarawak wank, but even that extend would be stretching it. They tried Sentarum valley and couldn't hold it, and there there are less obstacles to Sarawak's advances.

Lan Fang was an interesting entity, but it wasn't really conventional state. And if it could've ever become one, you'll have the recipe for Chinese-ruled apartheid.

 

[Germania09]

Good to see you back again Sketchdoodle even if it's for only a post or two more before school takes over again

 

[Deleted member 67076]

Great to see this back.

 

[Herr Frage]

Hmm, if this conspiracy tries something I fear the only result will be distrust further toward the Chinese community.

Good to see civility breaking out between Sarawak and the DEI. Perhaps they will work together to keep third parties from becoming active in Borneo as Bhutan and Sulu reach their ropes ends?

 

[B_Munro]

Interesting goings-on. I've read a little about headhunter suppression in Borneo: it was sometimes complicated by the fact that British and Dutch native allies often collected heads in combat themselves, and the local administrators turned a blind eye to their allies demonstrating their success by sending them heads, as long as they worked to suppress the "real" headhunters...

 

[Kinny Riddle]

Maybe it will ITTL, although that would destroy the growing detente between Sarawak and the Dutch. More likely Lanfang will get absorbed by the DEI and many of its leaders will go into exile in Sarawak and Johor, affecting commerce and politics there. Or maybe sketchdoodle has something else planned.

Lee Kuan Yew is a descendant of the Lanfang settlers. So I guess it is high time in this TL Sarawak gets its own LKY come the 20th century.

 

[Al-numbers]

It's a pity that the Lanfang Republic could not be absorbed by Sarawak.

Maybe it will ITTL, although that would destroy the growing detente between Sarawak and the Dutch. More likely Lanfang will get absorbed by the DEI and many of its leaders will go into exile in Sarawak and Johor, affecting commerce and politics there. Or maybe sketchdoodle has something else planned.

sketchdoodle does aim for Sarawak wank, but even that extend would be stretching it. They tried Sentarum valley and couldn't hold it, and there there are less obstacles to Sarawak's advances.

Lan Fang was an interesting entity, but it wasn't really conventional state. And if it could've ever become one, you'll have the recipe for Chinese-ruled apartheid.

Lee Kuan Yew is a descendant of the Lanfang settlers. So I guess it is high time in this TL Sarawak gets its own LKY come the 20th century.

You can't have everything, even in a Sarawak-wank.

In detail, Lanfang is just too far south, too deep in Dutch-controlled areas (even if indirectly ruled) and just too sodden with sociopolitical baggage for the Sarawak government to handle. The Brookes already have a major influence in the north of Borneo, so why should they focus on an area that'll probably be more trouble than it's worth? Besides that, such an action would definitely hurt the growing dentete between the Brookes and Batavia and neither side wants that in a time when Great Power politics really starts to matter in the East Indies.

However, Jonathan and Kinny do strike a few points: With more connections to more places, it's probable there might be a exodus of Lanfang settlers into Kuching, Johor and Singapore when the republic finally falls, with a significant enough number moving to the first two cities ITTL. A Lee Kwan Yew analogue might exist in Kuching ITTL, or in Johor.

Hmm, if this conspiracy tries something I fear the only result will be distrust further toward the Chinese community.

Good to see civility breaking out between Sarawak and the DEI. Perhaps they will work together to keep third parties from becoming active in Borneo as Bhutan and Sulu reach their ropes ends?

All the more reason for the traders to keep their inter-polity connections a secret, eh?

Sarawak ITTL already has a certain distrust towards the Chinese community, mainly because of the recent turf wars between different Chinese subgroups in the Rajang Delta (an unexpected import from the pepper farm-turf wars of Johor) so forming relations with Lanfang would definitely raise eyebrows on both sides of the border.

For now, Sarawak-DEI relations are mostly about finding a common ground on trade and recalcitrant Dayaks, though both parties are looking out for the northern sultanates. The 1870's will be an... interesting time for both parties..

P.S: didn't know Bhutan had a coastline.

Interesting goings-on. I've read a little about headhunter suppression in Borneo: it was sometimes complicated by the fact that British and Dutch native allies often collected heads in combat themselves, and the local administrators turned a blind eye to their allies demonstrating their success by sending them heads, as long as they worked to suppress the "real" headhunters...

That was the least of it. Before and partway into the dentete era, the Sarawak government often waived the headhunting ban in times of warfare. However, they tend to do it far too much and often stretch the definition of "war" whenever the Dutch complained. Plus, Dayak culture (or more precisely Iban and Bidayuh culture) has a particularly strong axis revolving on headhunting, with poems and songs and even parts of their ritualistic faith being involved. Before the 1890's, to seriously ban the practice would mean facing full-scale rebellion in an environment that is near-hostile to colonial forces; several British-Dutch Residents and soldiers realized this the hard way.

Good to see you back again Sketchdoodle even if it's for only a post or two more before school takes over again

Great to see this back.

Current state of feelings: -> ->

 

[lukedalton]

Just to ease the wait for the new update, with the permission of the author i post some piece about ITTL Italy, more precisely the Cavour goverment (including the third war of independence). If you don't agree with what wrote or you spot some error...i declare myself the only guilty part.



THE CAVOUR’S YEAR part I

Foreign Policy

The foreign politics of Italy in those early years, and for many years to come, were so intertwined with internal matters that is very difficult to determine when one end and the other begin.
The reclamation of the remaining irredente land like Veneto, Trentino and naturally Rome, considered the natural capital of Italy, were the premiere objective of the government and almost all his act can be traced back to that goal.

Secondly come other things, like how to create a colonial empire like the other great powers (but not for Cavour who make it one of his long-term project, has rightly so, he thought that colonies oversea were the key for Italy greatness).


The Roman Question

Prime Minister Cavour initially pursued a politics targeted to resolve diplomatically the ‘Roman question’ as it was thought that the major support both financial and political for the anti-unitary brigandage come from the Papal States so, at least for the initial moment, the problem of acquire Veneto was put aside.
This created a fracture between him and the King as Vittorio Emanuele II know that the Emperor of France, proclaimed protector of the Papal State, never have allowed a military conquest of the Eternal City and Pio IX was too stubborn to accept any Italian offer.

This political infighting galvanized people like Mazzini and Garibaldi, making them hope that very soon the Italian army will have moved against the Pope; so the ‘hero of two world’ began the creation of a volunteers corps to take Rome.
Cavour after having received news of this endeavor ordered the arrest of Garibaldi and all his troops, so to prevent a possible catastrophic international incident (1).

This move was not without consequence as General Garibaldi was considered a national hero and having him under house arrest, even if officially was not accused of anything, but just in protective custody, was a problem for the government both in terms of image than of public order.
The perfect solution at the situation come suddenly and from a very distant nation; the American consul in Vienna in fact again proposed to Garibaldi a commission in the Union Army as general, so to fight in the Civil War that at the moment was ravaging the United States (2).
Initially not interested in the offer, the personal request of the King and the Prime Minister to accept the proposal so to foster better relations with the new nation swayed him, even because this meant immediate freedom and more importantly action in a moment when the fight for the unity of the motherland was not possible.

Historical reenactors dressed as member of the ‘Libertà’ Legion the division lead by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the American Civil War.

The ‘Roman Question’ come again in the forefront only in 1864 when Napoleon III in need to support during the crisis between Prussia and Austria over the Danish Ducats, proposed the retreat of the French troops from the Papacy in exchange of the Italian promise to respect the territorial integrity of the Papal State.
Controversial was the clause regarding the choosing of another capital for the Kingdom of Italy, Cavour greatly insisted that was not necessary but the Emperor insisted so in the end, was agreed to move the capital from Turin to Florence(3).
With the diplomatic situation between Italy and French now being more stable, and Rome for now still out of reach, Veneto become a very tempting target.


Prussian-Italian Alliance

Cavour attempt to form an alliance with Prussia, started at the beginning of his mandate as Prime Minister of the newly united Italy.
The Count in fact sent General La Marmora in Berlin, officially as the Italian representative to the incoronation of King Wilhelm but in reality to try to found some agreement with Prussian government against Austria.
This initial attempt were rebuffed due to the mistrust of the very conservative Prussian political establishment against the more liberal Italian.

Between 1861 and 1865 there were other attempts to create such alliance, while at the same time Cavour tried to at least buy Veneto from Vienna (using France as middleman due continued refusal of Vienna to officially recognize the Italian government), but all this attempts failed, at least till a new player entered the field.

Chancellor Otto von Bismarck 1866

With the election of Otto von Bismarck as new chancellor of Prussia, the relationship with Italy drastically changed. In fact, the future ‘Iron Chancellor’, know perfectly that for his project to purge Germany of the Austrian influence, he needed allies. Therefore, he started sending some diplomatic feelers to France, as her neutrality were necessary for the success of any plan, and to Italy as she was the perfect ally due to both her position and irredentist claim.
La Marmora was sent again in Berlin to negotiate a possible alliance with Prussia, with the only clause that the French government needed to give his consent or at least not oppose the eventual conflict.

Napoleon III gave his assurance that France will have not interfered in a future conflict between the three nations, a move done with the intention of take the role of eventual mediator in the peace negotiation and using it to obtain concession on Belgium or Luxemburg.
At the same time, the diplomatic relationship between Prussia and Austria-Hungary turned to the better and many members of the royal court opposed the Chancellor in this project. This caused some doubt in Turin about how seriously this negotiation were but assurance from both Bismarck and the French Emperor made Cavour going through the talk and the 1 April 1866 the treaty of alliance between the Kingdoms of Prussia and Italy was signed in Berlin.

The relationship between Bismarck and Cavour was one of respect for each other intelligence and capacity but very cold at the personal level as both men had totally divergent political ideology and objective; both knowing that the alliance was only one of pure reciprocal interest and only temporary.


Colonial politics

Prime Minister Cavour, also hold the title of 1st Commander of the Navy and was always a great supporter of the naval institutions as a mean to project power and believed that Italy needed a colonial empire like the other Great Power. For this reasons, one of the first act as Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Italy, was to start a massive naval build up, with the commission of 12 new-armored ship and the construction of new and modern yards at La Spezia. (4)

Cavour early attempts to bring Italy in the colonial game go back at the first months of his premierships, with a commercial mission lead by Gianbattista Scala on Nigeria and in the Portuguese island of Principe. This initial little enterprise failed very quickly due to a series of problems, among them the lack of support from the rest of the Italian government, especially in a moment when Cavour was forced to rest due to a Malaria attack and the contemporary British protest over the Italian intrusion in a zone that they considered under their jurisdiction.

More successful, even if a little slower and not so glamourous, was the economic penetration and the spread of political influence in the neighboring Tunisia; this North African land historically always hold a strong Italian community and had many economic ties with the Kingdom of the Two Sicily’s who passed to the Kingdom of Italy.
These maneuvers culminated in the Treaty of Palermo of May 1867 (5), the last signed by Cavour before his death; the document regulated the regime of the capitulations, giving various economic and diplomatic privilege at the Italian community and financial interest.
This type of approach was deemed unavoidable by the Prime minister and the other political leaders, as the other Great Powers like France and United Kingdom will have never accepted a military occupation of the land, for many reason both economically than strategic.
For this reasons it was decided that gradually transform the place in a de-facto Italian protectorate was the next best thing.

The most controversial and far-reaching colonial move of Cavour career was the Aceh Question.
In 1865 a Genoese, former navy captain, now entrepreneur and friend of Garibaldi, Celso Cesare Moreno obtained an audience with the King and parliament and there he proposed to make the Sultanate of Aceh, in the Island of Sumatra, an Italian protectorate.
Moreno had become very close with the local royal family, even marrying one the daughter of Sultan and he perfectly know that while the nation was for now protected by the British, the treaty that assured this was going to expire soon and the Dutch already encroached their territory waiting for the right moment.
For this reason, he suggested to the Sultan to be sent in Italy with a diplomatic proposal for a protectorate, as the expatriate was sure that more reasonable terms could be extracted from a newcomer like his motherland. Naturally this move will had bring not only many opportunities, both commercial and political but also a lot of diplomatic headache as the government of Great Britain will surely not liked any intrusion on what considered his turf, like the previous colonial attempt demonstrated

Cavour instead greatly supported this idea but at that moment was busy with the diplomatic first step for the future alliance with Prussia, so in practice his aid was more limited, still it was sufficient for the proposal to be discussed.

Two things happened in 1866 to drastically change the political landscape in Italy so that Aceh became a name know by everyone in the peninsula.

First, the defeat of the Austria-Hungary Empire by the Prussian-Italian Alliance, and more in specific the victory of the Italian Navy at Lissa over the Austrian one, greatly bolstered the national self-confidence, in specific that concerning the capacity of Regia Marina.
Second the visit of the Maharaja Abu Bakar di Johor in Italy sparkled a great interest toward the region, especially in the King Vittorio Emanuele II.

Sultanate of Aceh 1867 circa

As expected the Italian attempted move was not appreciated by the United Kingdom or the Netherland who communicated their displeasure with some strong diplomatic note. Cavour initiated some low level talk between the three governments to find an agreement but at the same time continued the preparation for an expedition on Sumatra lead by Giacinto Carini. This plan, even if on an advanced stage, were scrapped after the 10 August 1867 due the death of Camillo Benso Count of Cavour, due to the political chaos that his demise caused.


(1)OTL Garibaldi attempted to organize an army to conquer Rome (with the silent approval of the current prime minister) but fear of French intervention caused the King to order at the army to stop him. The attempt caused a brief battle between the soldiers and Garibaldi’s men, with some a dozen of deaths and almost fifty wounded (among them Garibaldi himself).
(2) OTL offer but due to the previous wound and the difficult diplomatic situation due to his incarceration, it was not really pursued. Here things go differently due to him not being hit or really in prison and Cavour anxious to let him be the problem of another country.
(3) as OTL the capital moved to Florence as per agreement, while I doubt that Cavour will be eager to move it as Turin was in the middle of a construction boom and even him as people to keep satisfied, keeping Nappy III happy it’s more important in this case.
(4) As OTL but with him in charge, there is the possibility that the plan get a better government overseeing, so Regia Marina obtain ships of some better quality…at least a little.
(5) OTL Treaty but a year early due to no numerous change of government in Italy and a more linear and continuous foreign policy.

 

[lukedalton]

The Third War of Independence part I

The Italian Army
With the creation of the Kingdom of Italy, the old five piedmonts’ infantry division became the 20 Italians and the cavalry squadron passed from 36 to 100. These numbers, at the eve of the war, do not included the support of 40.000 volunteers commanded by General Giuseppe Garibaldi, freshly returned by the United States so to continue the fight to free his country and followed by a string of Americans followers.

Unfortunately some problems of the old piedmontese army remained like the scarcity of artillery and the lack of competent officers; worse that deficiency was exacerbated by the enlargement of the army. In fact, many volunteers or enlisted personnel were hastily promoted to fill the rank, at this need be added the heterogeneity of the troops and officers that come from the former pre-unitary armies and have different type of tradition and many even spoke a different language and in general, there was a certain lack of training.

Regarding the General Staff not only if was still little more than embryonal but was dominated by the so called Piedmontese camorra (a group of officer that have obtained the assignment more thanks to political connection with the King than to merit) furthermore the officer corps was divided in two faction regarding the possible strategy in case of war against Austria.

At one side there were the ‘Southern Faction’ that was headed by General La Marmora, they envisioned an attack through Romagna in direction of Venice and was opposed by the ‘Western school’ that proposed an assault through the Mincio and its major leader was General Cialdini (La Marmora chief rival).
In the middle of this, there was Prime Minister Camillo Benso Count of Cavour, that after a bitter fight with the King had officially taken the role of commander in chief of the army and quickly came to the conclusion that the biggest enemy were not the Austrians but his own generals.

Cialdini was soon dismissed (1) due to a dispute between him and Cavour over the real necessity to fight a war during the hottest months of the years (and him being unable to work with La Marmora).
This was an opinion that many others held but seeing the determination of the Prime Minister decided to keep their opinion for themselves over this argument and in the two months before the war the various officer immerged themselves in the war planning…so to not have to face the Count.

While the Italian had the numerical advantage, their strategic position was inferior compared to the Austrian thanks to the ‘Quadrilatero Fortress’. This series of fortification dominated the area, they were also helped by the local geography as the Rivers Po and Mincio and a series of swamp hindered the Italian movements

General Alfonso La Marmora

Hapsburg Army in Veneto
The Austrian Army, after their last war against Sardinia and France tried to correct the problems that the conflict highlighted, so the artillery was more mobile and the cavalry better trained and equipped for the role of scout. More attention was given to the logistic line and the general training of the men.

Between the 3 army corps, the fortress garrison and the troops at defense of Tyrol, the Austrian had a total of 190.000 men even if on the terrain, only 61.000 were deployed (at this sum, it’s needed to add 11.000 of a reserve division created using the troops of the garrison. In command of the troops in Italy was Archduke Albrecht

War plans
The Prussian generals asked at their Italian counterparts to attack decisively Veneto using the ‘Southern strategy’, conquer first Padua, and later go until the Isonzo, all which supported by the Italian Navy and by an expedition in Dalmatia. (2)
Cavour, in this case with the full support of the King, knowing the general lack of experience of his General Staff and La Marmora preference, decided to accept the Prussian proposal (for many historian this is the real reason Cialdini was sacked, as one of the leader of the ‘Western school’ he will have opposed the project).
General La Marmora added only the diversionary move of the 17th Army Division commanded by the General Raffaele Cadorna, supported by two cavalry brigade, one artillery brigade and some other minor units, that was ordered to launch an attack from Romagna.

La Marmora Troops start the offensive
Archduke Albrecht, fearing an Italian assault towards the Adige from the west, deployed his troops from Verona and Peschiera to Sommacampagna and the west part of the Mincio, so to be in position to attack the left flank of the enemy.
The Italians received the news regarding that but they were never sent to La Marmora, probably due to some lack of coordination, so the General still thought that the Austrians were on the defensive behind the Adige

For the 19 June, La Marmora ordered at the 1°Army Corps to pass the Mincio and to march in direction of Verona. Custoza and Villafranca were the objective of the 3° Corps, finally the 2° Corp had the mission to bypass Mantua from North and deploy from Curtatone to Borgofonte, the remnant force were used to control Peschiera and as reserve.
In general the Italian formation was too extensive and with barely sufficient reserve. Therefore, when the Archduke marched against the Italians, La Marmora had 70.000 soldiers against the same number of Austrian troops.

The Battle of Custoza
The Archduke plan was to concentrate his force on just a part of the dispersed Italian formation.

The 1° Corps (more precisely the 1° Division of the Corps) encountered early in the morning elements of enemy forces that seemed to be directed towards Oliosi, initially the Italians defeated the Austrians and advanced beyond the city. Soon come a strong Hapsburg counterattack and after 5 hours of fight, the 1° Division was on route, with many high ranking officers dead or severely injured.

General Durando (commander of the 1st Corp) used all his reserve to occupy the Monte Veltro Hills so to stop the Austrian advance, while the 5° Division continued his march repelling various enemy attack. Also in this case, it was not before long that they faced an increasing numbers of Austrian’s troops and after an exhausting numbers of attack and counterattack, the 3 Italian divisions were barely holding their ground

The 3rd Corps, more precisely the 7th Division (commanded by Nino Bixio) and the 16th (lead by Umberto di Savoia, heir of the throne of Italy), advanced beyond Villafranca and they were soon attacked by the Austrian cavalry; the enemy was in the end repelled but at the cost of numerous casualties.
At their left, the 3rd Division of the 1st Corps was ordered by La Marmora to occupy the hills of Monte Torre and Monte Croce. In 2 hours of furious engagement, the Italians were forced to retreat as the Austrians had more reserve. During the battle, Amedeo (third born of the King) was seriously wounded at the left leg and soon the doctors were forced to amputee.

The Hapsburg success was short lived, as the 8th Division reconquered the position very soon, even because there were only meager forces left to hold the place.
At Noon, General Ricotti-Magnani, commander of the 12th Division, left at Peschiera, informed of the critic situation of the 1st Corps, took the initiative and launched an attack against the Austrian forces at Monte Vento. The intervention was decisive in stopping and repelling the enemy that had to fall back at Salionze.

With the death of General Durando, the command of the 1st Corps passed to General Pianell, so he launched a counterattack with his 2nd Division and the 5th passing the river Tione. The Custoza hills were retaken by units of the 3rd corps led by General Govone, who asked immediately reinforcement to secure his hold, but even if a couple of Division were available their commander had order to ‘absolutely hold Villafranca and refused Govone request.

At 15.00 Austrian forces attacked the 3rd and 5th Division and after almost a couple of hour of harsh fighting they took Santa Lucia and later Monte Vento. The Archduke, after that, was ready to launch his final attack to Govone, when the 11th and 14th Division early put on the reserve forces, finally had come to help and relieved the 9th Division. The real battle lasted just an hour of heavy and desperate fight, but sporadic firefight continued past after 20.00 and ended with the Italians still controlling Custoza, but barely, having consumed almost all the ammunition and in general being tired and low on supply. (3)
La Marmora, spurred by the King and his generals, attempted to encircle the Austrian forces, but the lack of coordination between the Italians commanders and the general fatigue of the troops let the Archduke return safely to his initial positions.
At the end of the day, 3.745 Italian deaths and 4.987 wounded, countered 2.034 death and 6.284 wounded for the Austrians. At this, it is needed to be add the 5.201 Italian prisoner and missing, while the Austrians where 4.602.

Custoza in the end was a draw, with neither side in the end being capable of inflict a serious defeat to the enemy and make it retreat. The 20 June, Cadorna finally entered in Veneto, as his forces encountered some logistic problem and his diversionary move was so wasted, worse soon his forces were embroiled in the siege of the Austrian fortress of Borgoforte.

Giovanni Fattori - La Battaglia di Custoza (1880)


Invasion of Trentino – First phase
The original plan, envisioned the invasion and conquest of Trentino by Garibaldi Corp of Volunteer, passing through the Val Del Chiese and later the Valley of the Adige so to finally arrive at Trento and take it.
Unfortunely, at the beginning of the hostility, of the 10 scheduled regiments only 5 were ready, and for obtain the necessary supply and equipment the General had been forced to beg, rob and lie due to a certain animosity between the Garibaldini and the Savoyard officer corp.

Against them the Hapsburg army, composed by fewer but better trained troops, commanded by General Von Khun that immediately begun a series of offensive operation to stop Garibaldi attempted penetration on Imperial territory and for secure the zone against any other possible attack.

The 20th June, Garibaldi’s volunteers after having reached their assigned start position the day before, were assaulted by the Austrians, in a preemptive attempt to make them retreat and forestall the general attack, so to have more time for create a better defensive line. While the attack was repelled, it was typical of this phase of the campaign; a quick and limited battle between two formations were neither side is capable to take full advantage of the situation or to give the final and lethal blow to the adversary.

Both side were limited by the terrain and the meager resources at their disposal; the Austrian commander had even the order to ‘just fight a little war’ and limiting his effort to keep Trentino safe. For a couple of weeks the two forces played this game, searching each other in the various valley, and making pay to the local farmer the real cost of their war. The Italians slowly advanced continued thanks to the 3 of the missing regiment finally arriving, and some serious battle happened in this period, as example the one at Monte Suello was hard fought and Garibaldi himself was wounded leading his troops against the Austrian line.(4)

Drawning of the battle of Valle del Chiese

(1)In OTL, nobody in the political and military circle succeeded in create a clear chain of command or a single plan of battle; instead they not only divided the force and basically attempted both option (Southern and Western) but both commander thought that they commanded the real operation and the other the diversionary attack. Here Cavour, succeed in rein the general, even if he is ‘forced’ to make an example of Cialdini.
(2) OTL proposal, here has been accepted easily because the ‘Western school’ has been neutered.
(3) OTL the Austrian, break the Italian line and caused a general retreat due to La Marmora losing his nerve. Here with more troops available (and more time to prepare and better planning) the situation end in Italian favor.
(4) 90%OTL, just that instead of 3 regiments a somewhat better and longer preparation allowed for 5 to participate at the initial campaign. The big change it’s that Garibaldi will not retreat to protect Brescia due to the defeat of Custoza, instead he will keep his position.

 

[Archangel]

Good updates, Luke!

 

[Herr Frage]

Wait, so the Aceh deal falls through with Cavour's death?

 

[lukedalton]

Wait, so the Aceh deal falls through with Cavour's death?

Yes, the death of Cavour throw the italian political enstablishment on disarray and there were more important problem and the colonial attempt was for the moment put aside.

 

[Al-numbers]

With respect to the guest update, I'll field all relevant questions to the man who knows the subject best.

Wait, so the Aceh deal falls through with Cavour's death?

Yes, the death of Cavour throw the italian political enstablishment on disarray and there were more important problem and the colonial attempt was for the moment put aside.

Well, Yes and no. Cavour's death did grind the plan to a halt, but that didn't stop the Italians from going to the East Indies anyways and signing a commerce treaty with Aceh, as well as supplying the Acehnese with weapons to combat against the Dutch (though to be fair, the British also gave them guns and weaponry initially IOTL.)

Next update will involve a certain archipelagic sultanate off the coast of northern Borneo, and I might throw in one more about New Guinea before diving straight to 1877. Oh boy.