Chapter XXX: The Start of a bright new Era?
For Britain, the beginning of 1689 is a period of both fabulous celebration and deep uncertainty. No one is quiet sure what kind of Sovereign Charles III will be. While much of the nation speculates and turns towards the past for ideas, the new King is firmly facing towards the future, with a determination to make his own path in all matters, whether they be politics, the economy, the military or religion. This determination is much encouraged by the vastly changed realm inherited by Charles III from his father. The England that Charles II was restored to in 1660 was torn apart by years of civil war, uprising and dictatorial regime, with the powers of the Crown and Parliament ill-defined at the best of times, the finances of the government completely dependent on Parliament and a state church bucking for more power. The differences between that England and the Kingdom of Great Britain that Charles III might as well be night and day.
For the first time in centuries the Crown is completely independent financially, thanks to the Royal bank, a series of lucrative investments in the East India, Levant , West Africa, Royal Highways and Royal Insurance companies and the purchasing of choice properties in the heart of London. And, between the development of the national infrastructure, the new canals in the North and South and the inclosure act, even the common people are enjoying a standard of living higher then any of their contemporaries on the continent. Parliament has been defanged by the revoking, granting and re-granting of charters to cities and boroughs, with the end result giving the Monarch the power of veto over all municipal officers, such as the Sheriffs and Lords lieutenant, who just so happen to exercise control who can be nominated to run for Parliament in each of their shires. Thus, all future Parliaments are ensured to be both Royalist and docile, with none of the problems that plagues Charles' I and II being repeated under the new reign. Furthermore, the strength of the nation has been heavily expanded by the increase in size of both the army and navy. Though the power of the former is highly suspect by the political elite, the fact that this division of the armed forces has expanded British might across Europe and the Middle east has done much to ally fears among the rest of the country.
Then there is the religious freedoms, unique among the nations of Christendom. Thanks to the Royal declaration of indulgence all peaceful non-Angicans are able to practice their faith in peace and quiet, again in spite of the opposition of the political elite and established Church. The declaration also had the unintended consequence of allowing the Crown to claim supremacy over all ecclesiastical matters, not just over whether or not the penal laws are enforced. This has allowed the Crown to exercise great power over the liturgy, the book of common prayer and appointment of Bishops, creating a Church more Royalist and "High Church" (or cyroto-Catholic according to the opposition) in both teaching and outlook. With a robust economy, a powerful military and guaranteed religious liberty, the Kingdom of Great Britain is poised to dominate the new decade, and soon the rapidly approaching new century. Presiding over this golden, Stuart age is the 21-year-old Sovereign, Charles III.
Within weeks of his accession, it becomes clear to the political elite that their new Monarch different from his predecessor in several, fundamental ways. First, Charles III intends to take a highly active role in ruling the country, refusing to leave all but the most important decisions to his ministers. Second, and to the worry of many who surround him, he despises the widespread inefficiency and corruption that dominates the Court, seeking to streamline its administration. Third is his deep admiration, almost reverence, for the military, something he shares with his cousin across the water. Finally, and most importantly, is his deep distrust towards Parliament, which in light of the way that institution tended to act towards his father is perfectly understandable. It is these views and opinions that, for better or worse,will shape the entirely of the new King's reign.
The first such group to experience their Monarch's iron will and determination is the Royal Household itself. Long the social and political center of the realm, the Household is also known to be a center of corruption, entrenched, bureaucratic incompetence, petty feuds and all in all a drain on the Royal finances. King Charles II, in his own way, tried to deal with his massive Household with retrenchment towards the positions considered redundant or unnecessary, but he was merely treating the symptoms, not the disease itself. Charles III, however, intends to eradicate the disease of corruption, no matter who stands in his way. One of the major problems and causes of the widespread issues within the Household is the way it's organized. The Household is made up of three departments, led by the three Great Officers: the Lord Chamberlain, the Lord Steward and the Master of the Horse, and a number of sub-departments, with each enjoying autonomy from the other. In theory each of these departments would in harmony for the good of their Royal master, but the actual situation is much more turbulent, with each jealously guarding the sections of the Palace and Court under their prevue, leading to increasing infighting. The situation is further exasperated by fighting within the departments themselves, as many of the sub-departments, such as the Department of the Bedchamber, are now headed by Peers as well, leading to showdowns between the respective sub-departments heads and the Great officers. It is clear to most that the Royal Household is in need of major reforms, but the how is what causes pause and even argument. However, while courtiers, ministers and nobles debate, the King acts. On February 2nd, after consulting the Earls of Bath and Sunderland (former ambassadors to Spain and France, respectively) and the diplomatic corps, Charles issues what has become known as the Whitehall decree.
Officially an amendment to the Fundamental laws of the House of Stuart (as the Caroline laws are officially titled), the Whitehall decree completely reorganizes the Royal Household from the top to the bottom, with no department or office unaffected. In order to properly implement these changes, a new Department of the Royal Household, based on similar departments in France, Spain and Austria and headed by a new Secretary of State, is established. The royal household department is to oversee the Households of the Royal family and the Princes of the Blood (who enjoy the right to a household paid out of state revenues), Court administration, the Royal residences, the Chapels Royal, the King's Guard and all ceremonial events, like royal entries, state openings of Parliament and Investiture ceremonies for new Knights of the Garter. A tall order to be sure, but the King is confident that the Household department will be up for the task. In terms of organization the new department couldn't be more different then its predecessor. Taking after the French, Spanish and Austrian Households, the Department is now divided into four major branches: the Household itself, the Buildings of the Crown (including many of the public buildings in London, such as St. Pauls Cathedral, still under construction), Religious affairs (dealing with both the Anglican Church and religious minorities, including desenters, Presbyterians and Catholics) and administration (appointing Lords Lieutenant and acting as a go between for local governments and London). Nor the Household itself has not escaped reform. It is now divided into three branches: the Domestic household, answering directly to the Royal Secretary,the Ecclesiastical household, answering to the Lord High Almoner (who will now oversee the Chapel Royal, with the exception of the Catholic establishments, which fall under the control of either a Confessor or a favored priest, as there are as yet no Catholic bishops in the country) and the Military household (made up of the Regiments of the King's Guard), answering to the new Captain-General of the Guards.
The Lord Chamberlain's department will oversee all royal servants and sub-departments above stairs, including the offices of the ceremonies, revels, removing wardrobe, robes, great wardrobe, Tents, Toyles, Hales and Pavilions and the medical and artistic establishments, along with the coffer bearers and house and wardrobe keepers. However, an acceptation is made for the autonomous Department of the Bedchamber, led by the Groom of the Stole (a position that is now formally combined with that of First Gentlemen of the Bedchamber). The Household below stairs, including the acatry, almonry, bakehouse, boiling house, buttery, cartakers, cellar, chandry, confectionary and ewry, along with the Household finances, remain under the purview of the Lord Steward and the Board of Green Cloth (a board of officials that aid the Lord Steward in auditing the royal accounts, making arrangements for royal travel and acting as a court for offenses committed within the verge of the palace). The Master of the Horse shall now be in charge all major outdoor activity for the Royal family, such as hunting, falconing and archery, along with the King's mews (combined stables and carriage house), races, breed of horses and hounds. Finally, in order to better create better cohesion, each Royal residence will now have a permanent Master of the Household appointed, though all will answer to the Lord Steward, to oversee each separate residence while the Court is absent and insure that each palace is ready to receive its Sovereign at a moment's notice.
Whether or not the creation of the Department of the Royal Household will a great success or complete disaster remains to be seen, but either way it is clear to all observers that the Court and the Royal entourage are forever changed.Nor is the Household department is just the first innovation the King has planned for his realm, but the rest will happen only when the time is right. For now, Charles and the nation have more pressing matters to attend to. The first, and most important, for the Crown at least, is the Coronation. Evidence of this solemn ceremony's importance is witnessed in just quickly the Coronation committee is formed: Charles III ascended the throne on December 21st, with the committee having its first meeting on the 26th. However, for the first months of his reign Charles has been focusing more on the reform of the Household and Court, leaving planning of the coronation to the committee. Now that his reforms are underway, the King can turn his full attention to his crowning. A lover of the pomp and pageantry that accompanies such magnificent state events, Charles is determined that his Coronation will be one for the ages, be the envy of every European monarch and insure that Great Britain's power is displayed to all Christendom.
King and committee pour over records, journal entries and eyewitness testimonies with meticulous attention, ensuring that no detail however small is overlooked. These records are made all the more important when in early March the committee is informed that Queen Marianna will be crowned alongside her husband, making this the first joint Coronation in almost 200 years, the last being for Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon back in 1509. This means that not one but two crownings must now be planned. The situation is further complicated by the fact that the Queen is Catholic, meaning that certain parts of the ritual, like the anointing, will have to be changed in order to account for her religion. Not to mention Marianna will require her own crowns to be made as well, as the original Crown Jewels of England were destroyed by Oliver Cromwell. When Charles II was crowned he had no Queen, meaning that no Consort crowns were needed for his coronation. In all its clear the the committee has its work cut out for it. Thankfully they will not want in terms of finance, as the Royal bank has allocated an eye-popping £ 250,000 for the event, with a further £ 50,000 earmarked if necessary, ensuring that this Coronation will be the most expensive in British history. While Britain focuses on celebration and ceremonies, her allies on the continent have their attentions centered firmly in the east.
Painted plans: the prepared details for the Coronation of Charles III and Queen Marianna
With the fall of Cyprus and the subsequent restoration of its medieval Kingdom, the Great Crusade seems to be entering its final phase. Since the previous November the League has been steadily building up its forces on Cyprus, in preparation for an attack on the Levant and by early April over 55,000 British, German, Italian, Dutch and Spanish soldiers are now garrisoned across the island, with a further 30,000 French and 25,000 Scandinavian soldiers departing, along with another 15,000 Imperial troops and 5,000 Templars. In Vienna, it is announced that the Supreme Council itself will travel to Cyprus, to personally supervise the coming campaign and to ensure the cooperation between the various nationalities continues. However, an event threatens to derail the carefully crafted relations between the various contingents: on April 9th Emperor Leopold announces that he will travel to the Holy land, accompanied by the Prince and Princess of Asturias, to personally lead the Imperial contingent, in imitation of the Emperor Frederich Barbarossa over four centuries ago. Such an announcement, while playing well with an audience at home and the army abroad, will no doubt cause issues with the other nations of the Holy League.
Sure enough, when word reaches Versailles, the French King is sent into a rage. For the past two decades Louis XIV has carefully crafted his reputation as Christendom's great warrior King, and sees the Emperor's action as a direct affront to his preeminent position. So few are surprised when, on May 3rd, the Sun King announces his intention to travel to the Holy land as well, where he will lead the Maison militaire du Roi in its mission to liberate Jerusalem. And once the rest of Europe learns of the Emperor and Sun King's intentions, it is as though the flood gates thrown open. Within weeks numerous monarchs, nobles, clerics and other assorted personages of importance are pledging to join the Levantine campaign, either on a pilgrimage to the Holy places of the east or as a commander fighting for the glory of Christendom. By the end of May a clear picture of who will be traveling to Cyprus and the Holy Land has emerged. This unofficial list included numerous men and women of power and rank, including the Emperor, Empress and Prince & Princess of Asturias (with Leopold's stepmother Dowager Empress Eleonora Gonzaga staying behind as Regent of the Empire and Austrian Monarchy), King Louis, his wife Queen Maria Theresea, and their son and daughter-in-law the Dauphin & Dauphine (leaving the Duc d'Orleans as Regent), the Prince & Princess of Orange, Crown Prince Frederick of Denmark, the Duke of Bragança and his brother the Duke of Beja, Crown Prince Jakub Ludwig of Poland, the Grand Prince & Princess of Tuscany, the Electors & Electresses of the Palatinate, Bavaria, Saxony and Brandenburg, the Duke & Duchess of Modena and suprisingly Tsarevich Peter Alexeyevich of Russia, to say nothing of the assorted clerics, nobles, ministers, merchants and pilgrims who intend to accompany the army on this once in a lifetime journey.
In the midst of all this planning, politicking, moves and counter moves, a single event occurs in Rome that once again makes Europe stand still. On April 19th the 62-year-old Queen Christina of Sweden, that legendary eccentric, breathed her last. As she had been ill since February it was not an unexpected death, but she was much mourned in Rome. What really created the shock waves was who her will named as her heir. For decades the Queen had made multiple promises to different figures over who would eventually inherit her vast collections. Though the former Queen Regnant was fairly she had a fantastic art collection, one talked about across Europe. The heart of this collection had started out as booty at the end of the Thirty years war: the fabulous collection of Emperor Rudolf II. This assortment of paintings, statues, objets d'art, manuscripts, scientific instruments and hundreds of other fascinating pieces was once the largest artistic collection in history, but in the decades since it's original owners death had been scattered to the four corners of the world. Even so, in 1648, when the Swedish seized what was left in Prague, it still included 500 paintings, seventy bronzes, 370 scientific instruments, 400 Indian "curiosities" , hundreds of corals, ivories, precious stones, pieces of amber, vases and other objets d'art, thousands of medals, two ebony cabinets and even a live lion, not to mention the Emperor's vast library.
A small piece of Queen Christina's collection
Now this remarkable collection is up for grabs. All Europe waits with batted breath to see who will be its new master: the French King, who was promised it back in the 1650s? Or perhaps Karl XI, as Queen Christina had promised to return her property to Sweden on her death? Or even Pope Innocent XI, her last host, who has long had an eye on acquiring the collection for the Papacy. In the end, all three are to be disappointed and quite a bit shocked when the Queen's will is red, for the heir named is none other than King Charles III. Unbeknownst to most of Europe, the Swedish Queen had maintained a devoted correspondence with both Charles II and Charles III in the years since her 1673 English visit. The Queen and Charles III shared a deep fascination with science, mathematics, history, architecture, philosophy and above all, the Arts. In time, Christina even began to refer to the Prince of Wales as "My beloved childe" considering him the son she never had, a true accomplishment considering the Queen's tendency to develop intense friendships with the same sex. Almost immediately after the will is made public, both the Pope and Swedish King dispute it, Innocent even going so far as to impound the entire collection to keep in in the Papal states. The British retaliate by sending a squadron to Civitavecchia, the chief port of Rome, on a "visit". Officially the squadron is awaiting favorable weather to sail on to Cyprus, but the message is clear: the Pope backs down and allows Cardinal Decio Azzolino, the Queen's close friend and executor of her estate, to begin the process of sending the collection to Britain.
While the entire affair is relatively minor compared to the ongoing Crusade, it does illustrate the growing power and importance of Great Britain. Just a decade ago the Pope would have held strong against such intimidation and the Royal Navy would have lacked the necessary ships and financial supplies to send an entire squadron for the purpose of threatening a nation. While whether this is a good thing in the long run is still up for debate, it is clear that Britain has firmly arrived into the pantheon of Great powers, a cause for much rejoicing in London and Whitehall. Meanwhile, events continue to unfold on the continent, with each Sovereign playing a careful game of one-upmanship while maintaining the careful veneer of civility, made all the more important with news that the Supreme council has selected the starting date of the campaign: September 29th, the feast day of St. Michael the Archangel. As the Archangel Michael is a figure honoured by all of the various Christian sects, it is considered an appropriate departure date, especially when one considers his role as the defeater of Lucifer. This means that all who wish to participate this illustrious undertaking must be on Cyprus by the end of September or risk losing out on the rewards. Understandably, this announcement, sent to all the major courts of Europe, triggers a frenzy of preparations not seen since the First Crusade, with Sovereigns, Prelates, nobles and merchants all seeking to have the best retinues, costumes, gifts, horses, soldiers, furniture, plate and carriages that money can buy. With so much attention going into the material aspects of the journey, its easy for some to forget that this is to be a military campaign, not an international social season. Thankfully for Christendom, and the future of the Crusade, the martial leaders of the League haven't forgotten.
Under the leadership of the various senior officers, including the British Dukes of Monmouth and Cambridge and Lord Churchill, the French Marshals de Lexembourg and Boufflers, the Imperial Duke Charles V of Lorraine and Margrave of Baden-Baden, the Swedish Count Palatine of Kleeberg, the Spanish Duque de Villahermosa and the Dutch Prinz Georg Friedrich von Waldeck, the armies on Cyprus are reorganized into five international corps of 40,000 each, each assigned to a specific target in the invasion. The first and second corps are assigned to take the port cities of Jaffa and Acre, respectively, to secure a beachhead to land the rest of the forces in the Levant. Meanwhile, the third corps will land in the region of Cilicia and besiege the cities of Adana and Tarsus, to trick the Turks into focusing their forces away from Holy Land. The Fourth corps, after the fall of Acre and Jaffa, will land near Bayrut, taking that city and moving on towards the ancient city of Damascus. Finally the fifth corps will act as a reserve force, only deploying if one of the four other corps need assistance. By the end of June the military preparations are complete, with the plans for the army in place, the fleet standing ready and supplies prepared. All that's left is to await the arrival of the VIPs to get the campaign underway.
However, before the campaign begins Europe has one last ceremony to preform and attend: the Coronation of King Charles III and Queen Marianna. For most Kings a coronation is the grandest, most magnificent ceremony the will undergo and Charles is no exception. In preparation for what is being lauded as "a Crowning as grand as that of the Pharaohs of Egypt and Roman Emperors" King Charles inaugurates two new Chivalric orders, the Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle and the Most Honourable Military Order of the Bath, to honor his subjects and celebrate the Coronation. The former, the Order of the Thistle (ranking second in Chivalric orders, after the Order of the Garter), is meant to be both an olive branch to the Scots, the majority of whom are still smarting from the Act of Union four years ago and a Scottish version of the Most Noble Order of the Garter. In order to ensure that the Thistle is seen as a true olive branch and not an excuse to create new honours, it will be limited to Scotsmen for the time being, with the possibility of being awarded to English and Irishmen at a later date. The Order of the Bath (ranking third, after the Thistle), in contrast, is to be available to all of the King's subjects, a way to reward people without creating new peerages. While the Thistle, like the Garter, will be limited to a small number of Knights (12 and the Sovereign) the Bath will have an upper limit of 38 members (the Sovereign, Grand master and Knights Companions). While not as large as the Spanish Order of the Golden Fleece (50 members) or the French Order of the Holy Spirit (112 members), the Bath is still nearly double the size of the Garter (24 Knight Companions, the heir to the throne and the Sovereign), thus enabling the Crown to grant honours to a larger amount of people while not diluting the exclusivity of Knighthoods.
Insignia of a Knight Companion of The Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle
Insignia of a Knight Companion of the Most Honourable Military Order of the Bath
In the weeks leading up to the coronation investitures for all three of the Orders take place in and around the London area; Windsor for the Garter, Whitehall for the Thristle (a temporary location while a permanent chapel is built at the Palace of Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh) and Westminster for the Bath. In all over 60 Knights are invested in a four week period, leading some to call June the "month of the Knights". Of course not all the new Knights are able to be invested, as some, like the Dukes of Cambridge and Schomberg, Lord Marlborough and Admiral Edward Russell, are currently on Cyprus preparing for the invasion of the Levant and are obviously unavailable for the time being.
On June 14th Prince Philip Leopold, Duke of Gloucester (youngest son of the Duke of York) marries Lady Elizabeth Thynne née Percy, Baroness Percy. While the Baroness brings untold wealth and an ancient title, the match is considered scandalous by much of society, as Elizabeth is suspected of instigating the murder of her second husband, Thomas Thynne, in 1687. As always however, money talks, and with the wealth Elizabeth has the marriage is easily able to go ahead. Two days later, on June 16th, the King's half brother Charles Leslie, Duke of Albemarle marries his long-time fiance Lady Jean Hamilton-Leslie, Countess of Rothes, granddaughter and heiress of the late John Leslie, Duke of Rothes. In honour of the marriage the two are created Duke and Duchess of Rothes, imitating the Duke of Monmouth and his wife Anne Scott, 4th Countess of Buccleuch's joint creation as Duke and Duchess of Buccleuch. Lady Jean's grandfather, a rich and powerful peer, was a great loyalist to the Stuarts in general and Charles II in particular, having fought and been captured at the Battle of Worcester. At his death the Duke commanded his young granddaughter (her mother Margaret having died in childbirth) to the guardianship of his King, who promptly betroths her to the son of his favorite mistress, the Duchess of Portsmouth. With this wedding Albemarle becomes one of the wealthiest men in Scotland, rivaling the new wealth of his cousin Gloucester in England, leading some to call the new Duchesses "the Royal cash cows", an unflattering name to be sure but sadly accurate.
The ceremonial reaches a fevered pitch on the eve of the Coronation, June 28th, with the traditional procession from the Tower of London to Westminster Abbey. The day begins in the early morning, with the King, Queen, members of the Royal family and officers of the Royal Household carried to the Tower on the Royal barge. At the tower a great cavalcade has assembled, awaiting the arrival of the King and Royal family. Shortly after the barge arrives, the magnificent procession departs, snaking slowly through the London streets, passing under the four triumphal arches as it went and taking five hours to travel as many miles. Every window along the route was crammed with spectators, the victors of a bidding war for vantage points from which house owners turned a massive profit. The procession itself was many thousands strong; headed by the lowlier officials, each section was more magnificent than the last. It included almost the whole secular establishment of the Kingdom: from the principal officials responsible for law, Parliament and finance though all the main officers of the Royal Household, to almost the whole nobility, among them over 60 barons, 14 viscounts and 40 earls. The King was the apogree of the procession and carried off his role with aplomb: riding on a splendid horse, he was an immediately striking figure of unparalleled beauty. His natural prominence was enhanced by his dazzling suit and the enormous plummed hat that distinguished him from the other participants- most bareheaded out of respect for their sovereign. As he passed through the streets, railed and graveled to keep the crowds at a respectful distance, the King effortlessly combined majesty with the common touch, nodding graciously to individual members of the crowd, so spreading delight among those who felt themselves to have been singled out for favour. Houses were hung with banners and rich carpets, and the ladies leaned out their windows. As one eyewitness put it, 'So glorious was the show with gold and silver, that we were not able to look at it, our eyes at last being so much overcome.'
The streets of London were transformed into a grand stage set, dominated by the triumphal arches payed for by the Lord Mayor and Aldermen. Their themes were highly appropriate: The King's triumph in Leadenhall street, a naval display at the Royal exchange, a Temple of Concord in Cheapside and an optimistic Garden of Plenty in Fleet Street. At the nearly complete St. Paul's the pupils of Christ's Hospital stood on a scaffold while a boy delivered a speech. The procession ended at the Abbey, from which the cavalcade dissolved, with the King, Queen, Royal family and principal officers boarding a barge to return to Whitehall, the soldiers returning to their barracks and the various clerical and secular official returning to their lodgings, all reading themselves for the events of tomorrow.
British magnificence: the Coronation eve procession
The coronation itself came the next day, which was also the feast day of Saints Peter and Paul. By the time the ceremonies begin with a 101-gun salute from the Tower proclaiming Coronation day, the invited guests, including nobles, clerics, merchants, the entire diplomatic corps, government officials, and quite a few foreign representatives appointed especially for the occasion (such as the French Comte de Vermandois, the Spanish Prince de Ligne, the Dutch William Nassau de Zuylestein, the Danish Prince George and the Swedish Count Palatine von Zweibrücken) have been at the abbey for over three hours, mainly to ensure a good seat for the occasion. Meanwhile,the Regiments of the Military Household assemble in the city (or borough) of Westminster in order of seniority, with the Regiments of Life Guards, Horse Grenadiers and Horse Guards closest to the doors of the Abbey, followed by the Foot Guards, Coldstream Guards, Scots Guards, German Guards and the new Swiss Guards. At nine o'clock the Royal barge, again carrying the King, Queen, royal family and principal officers of the Realm and Household, departs Whitehall, this time for Westminster Hall. Once they arrive at the old palace, the party begins their final preparations, dressing the King in his mantle and cap of estate, both of crimson velvet furred with ermine, while the Queen is dressed in robes of purple velvet furred with ermine and adorned with her new diadem, decorated with diamonds and pearls, furred with ermine and topped with a purple velvet cap. Meanwhile the Great Officers of State, the officers of the Royal Household, the Archbishops and Bishops, the Dean of the Chapel Royal and everyone else with roles in the ceremony dress in their own robes of state. Finally all assemble in the painted chamber and, at 10:30 the great procession to the abbey begins.
The procession is led by the King's herb woman and her six young attendants, dressed in white, who strew the way with herbs and flowers in accordance with a centuries-old tradition, a precaution against Plague. Next comes an assortment of royal instruments, including a flute, keddle drums and trumpeters, followed by the closet keeper and chaplains of the Chapel royal, the Aldermen of London and the Judiciary of the Realm. They are followed by lesser members of the Royal Household, and the rest of the Ecclesiastical establishment. Now come the Peers, Peeresses and Bishops of the Realm, succeeded by the Clarenceux and Norroy Kings of Arms, followed by the Lord President, Lord Privy Seal and Lord High Treasurer and the Archbishops of Canterbury & York. The Archbishops are closely succeeded by the officers of the Queen's Household and the Queen herself, canopy of state covering her and trailed by her Ladies and women of the Bedchamber.Following the Queen are other senior female members of the Royal family, including Queen Mother Catherine, the Princess Royal, and the Duchesses of Kendal, York and Cumberland, along with their own ladies. The female royals are closely followed by the rest of the Officers of state, carrying crown, the orb, the scepter, and the sword of state and the officers of the Royal Household. Finally comes the King himself, also covered by a canopy of state, trailed by the Gentlemen and grooms of the bedchamber, with the senior male royals, the Dukes of Kendal, York and Prince Rupert and rounding out the procession are the Yeoman of the Guard. Though the Palace and the abbey are barely a half mile apart, the sheer size and length of the procession means it takes almost 45 minutes for the Royal family to reach the doors of the abbey.
At 11:15 the procession begins to enter the abbey and take their assigned seats. Finally, Charles III enters Westminster Abbey wearing the crimson surcoat and the Robe of State of crimson velvet.Once the King takes his seat on the Chair of State, the Garter Principal King of Arms, the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Lord Chancellor, the Lord Great Chamberlain, the Lord High Constable and the Earl Marshal go to the east, south, west and north of the Abbey. At each side, the Archbishop calls for the Recognition of the Sovereign, with the words "Sirs, I here present unto you King Charles, your undoubted King: wherefore all you who are come this day to do your homage and service, are you willing to do the same?" The people replied loudly at each repetition "God save King Charles". The king then sat in the Chair of State and the regalia, except the swords, were laid on the alter. The King then knelt before the alter and swore on the Bible his coronation oath, a copy of which he then signed.
The Archbishop of Canterbury then began the Communion Service, while the Bishop of London read the Epistle and the Archbishop of York the Gospel; after the Service concluded, the King and Queen knelt while the choir sang "Veni, Creator Spiritus". This marked the beginning of the anointing of the monarch, where the Archbishop of Canterbury marks the monarchs head with oil to symbolize the introduction of the holy spirit. The Choir sang Henry Lawes's Zadok the Priest and the Archbishop prayed, before the King was disrobed and sat in St Edward's Chair, with the Canopy borne by four knights of the Garter placed over him. The Archbishop then anointed him with oil from the Ampulla, which had been poured onto the Anointing Spoon.
In preparation for his crowning, the King, still at St Edward's Chair, was invested with the two coronation robes, the Colobium Sindonis and the Supertunica by the Dean of Westminster. Next, he was invested with the regalia, which each symbolized his progress to kingship. Firstly, the Lord Great Chamberlain touched the King's heals with the Golden Spurs; the Great Sword of State was deposited in St Edward's Chapel and the Jewelled Sword of Offering was passed to the King by the Archbishops and Bishops, who said "with this sword do justice;" the King then offered this sword at the alter. Seated again, the Lord Great Chamberlain fastened the armills and the Dean invested him with the Royal Robe; the Archbishop passed him the Orb, put the Ring on his fourth finger and handed to him the two sceptres - with the cross (for Royal power) and with the dove (for "mercy and equity"). The Earl of Lincoln, as Deputy of the Lord of the Manor of Worksop, then handed over a glove, which the King wore.
Once adorned with his regalia and seated in St Edward's Chair, King Charles was crowned with St Edward's Crown by the Archbishop of Canterbury and the people in the abbey proclaimed loudly "God save the King;" the peers and peeresses wore their coronets (the only time that this happens) and the guns in the Royal Parks were shot to mark the crowning. The Archbishop presented the Bible to the King and the King returned it to him, who gave it to the Dean, who placed it on the Alter. The King handed the glove over to the Lord Chamberlain of the Household and the Sceptre with the Cross to the Lord of the Manor of Worksop. The Benediction followed and then the King moved over to the other throne, accompanied by the Bishops of Bath and Wells and Durham, the Great Officers of State, the Lords carrying the swords and the Lords who had carried the regalia. The Archbishop knelt and paid homage to the King; the Archbishop of York did so next, followed by each of the Bishops. The Dukes of the Blood Royal then did homage, followed by the Lords Temporal (Dukes, Marquesses, Earls, Viscounts, Barons); six anthems were sung by the Choir during the homage: "O come ye servants of the Lord", "Hear my prayer, O Lord", "O clap your hands together, all ye people", "All the ends of the world shall remember themselves", "O praise God in His holiness" and "Thou wilt keep him in perfect peace".
The Queen is crowned and anointed in a much smaller and simpler ceremony. It began immediately after the homage to the King finished, when the Queen knelt in prayer before the altar. She then went to the Faldstool, which had been placed before the altar, where she knelt under a canopy, which was held by the Duchesses of Norfolk, Beaufort, Monmouth and Hamilton. The Archbishop anointed her, placed on her fourth finger on her right hand the Queen's ring and then crowned her, at which point the Princesses and Peeresses donned their coronets. She was then handed her Sceptre with the Cross and the Ivory Rod with the Dove, before walking over to her own throne beside the King, where she sat.The Offertory followed, in which the King and Queen offered their regalia on the Altar. They then received holy communion from the Archbishop and were passed their crowns before returning to their thrones. Te Deum was sung by the choir. A recess followed, during which time the Officers of Arms arranged the procession out of the abbey, which largely took the form of that conducted on entering.
Brilliant majesty: King Charles III and Queen Marianna enthroned
Wih the coronation over, the reformed procession returns to Westminster Hall for the Coronation banquet. Once inside, The King was escorted to his place by the Barons of the Cinque Ports who traditionally have the right to hold the canopy over the king on the occasion of the Coronation Processions. Once the King was seated the Lord High Constable, the Lord High Steward and the Deputy Earl Marshal rode into the hall on horseback. The Hereditary Champion, a member of the family of Dymoke of Scrivelsby, in full armour rode a horse into the Coronation Banquet in Westminster Hall to throw down his gauntlet and challenge anyone to deny the new sovereign. After no one had taken up the Gauntlet, Charles III drank to the Champion from a gold cup. It was passed to the Champion, who also drank from it and then took it away as his rightful trophy of the day.Then it was the turn of the peers and bishops at the long tables to drink his Majesty's health followed by the customary rounds of cheering. The King stood up to thank them for their good wishes and to do them " the honour of drinking their health and that of his good people" . As Samuel Pepys wrote, " It exceeded all imagination and conception. Picture to yourself Westminster Hall lined beneath with the peers in their robes and coronets, the Privy Councillors, Knights of the Bath, and a multitude of different attendants and chief officers of State in most magnificent dress, and with a double row of galleries on each side above, filled with all the beauty of London, the ladies vying with each other in the magnificence of their apparel and the splendour of their head-dresses. Some of them being literally a blaze of diamonds."
Coronation Banquet of Charles III
The Coronation Banquet for three hundred guests at Westminster Hall was served by a procession of household Officials and Gentlemen Pensioners. Some of the dishes served were: soups including turtle, salmon, turbot, and trout, venison and veal, mutton and beef, braised ham and savoury pies, daubed geese and braised capon, lobster and crayfish, cold roast fowl and cold lamb, potatoes, peas and cauliflower. There were mounted pastries, dishes of jellies and creams, over a thousand side dishes, nearly five hundred sauce boats brimming with lobster sauce, butter sauce and mint. The peers and bishops having had nothing to eat since breakfast turned to their plates with relish. The guest's wives and children could only look on from the galleries built for the occasion. One peer at least tied a capon in his handkerchief and tossed it up to his famished family. Lord Manchester was given the honour of serving the King and the royal Dukes. One of the things he served was a pineapple weighing eleven pounds which Manchester cut up with the assistance of Lord Sandwich. Shortly afterwards, at about half past seven the Royal family retired from the Hall and returned to Whitehall.
Coronation Portraits of King Charles III and Queen Marianna
Shortly after the Coronation, Charles III begins a second shakeup, this time turning his reforming gaze towards his government. He begins by restructuring the ministers, moving some to different positions, dismissing others and appointing a few new ones as well. First up is 59-year-old Baron Clifford, the Lord High Treasurer. Having held this office since 1672, he now resigns, to be replaced by the Earl of Rochester. To Rochester's own office, the Chancellorship of the Exchequer, the Earl Godolphin is appointed, while he himself is now succeeded to the Governorship of the Royal Bank by Sir John Ernle, former Treasurer to the Navy. The Marquess of Carmarthen remains Lord High Chancellor, though his second office, First Lord and head of the Board of Trade, is now held by Samuel Pepys, a skilled naval administrator and prominent member of the Royal Society. The Lord President of the Council remains held by George Savile, 1st Marquess of Halifax, appointed to that office after the death of the Earl of Radnor in 1685, while James, Duke of York & Albany remains Lord High Admiral. Rounding out the non hereditary Great officers of State is Rochester's older brother, Henry Hyde, 2nd Earl of Clarendon, made Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal. While changing out ministers is nothing new, it is with the Secretaries of state that the King truly begins to make waves.
After the Restoration of Charles II, two new departments were created, each headed by a Secretary of State. Both were in charge of domestic and foreign affairs, with the Northern department responsible for Northern England, Scotland, and relations with the Protestant states of Northern Europe and the Southern responsible for Southern England, Wales, Ireland, the American colonies, and relations with the Roman Catholic and Muslim states of Europe. While this form of government worked well in the early years of the Restoration, it has become increasingly clear that this is no longer the case. With the ongoing Great Crusade, it is necessary to coordinate closely with both the Catholic and Protestant nations of Europe, while all relations with Muslim nations have been suspended. At the same time, with the act of union combining England and Scotland and the rewriting of various town and city charters giving the Crown the power of veto over all executive officers, domestic affairs have became more and more complicated. With all this in mind, King Charles declares the reformation of the two departments, transforming the Northern Department into the Home Department and the Southern Department into the Foreign Department, and appointing Charles Middleton, 2nd Earl of Middleton and Robert Spencer, 2nd Earl of Sunderland to head the respective departments.
But the King is not done yet. The February Whitehall decree that completely reformed and restructured the Royal Household created a third Secretary of State to head the new department, to which Henry Somerset, 1st Duke of Beaufort was appointed. Beaufort's " princely way of living", with his household of 200 and his friendship with the King made him a perfect person to run the Royal Household. Finally two other departments and Secretaries of State are created: the War Office and the Colonial Office, with the former in charge of the administration and organization of the Army and the latter dealing with the colonial affairs of British North America. Two these last two departments, Sir William Blathwayt (formerly Secretary at War) and Sir Edmund Andros (colonial governor of New York), respectively, are appointed. With his new government in place, the King is now ready to face his first major challenge: Parliament.
On July 5th, King Charles opens his first Parliament, a markedly different assembly from the one under his father. Between the issuance of new charters to Royalist boroughs, the rewriting of many existing charters to result in the inclusion of a crown veto on the appointment of all executive officers and the inclusion of over 50 Scottish MPs, the House of Commons is even more Royalist than the Cavalier Parliament of 1661. In his opening speech the King extols the virtues of Parliaments, calling them "the foundation on which our Kingdom is built" while praising the glorious victories of the army and navy, "our sword and shield" over the Turks. He next asks the Houses to make sure they take care of the armed forces "by giving them the necessary supplies to continue their holy mission" and to remember Great Britain's foreign relations "the bond of Christian brotherhood" depends on their actions. As the speech is winding down, the King, almost casually, drops a bombshell: he hopes that Parliament won't dally to long, for he will soon be taking his leave of them. In August, the King continues, he will depart the country for Cyprus, to join his fellow Sovereigns to retake the holy land. The entire room goes silent. No Lord or MP expected such an announcement when they entered the hall and it takes some time for them to recover. Finally the Duke of Kendal stands and begins to applaud, followed by the other Royal Dukes, the Lord and finally the MPs. The King rises and, to the sound of thunderous applause, he exits the hall. Parliament is now in session, and its time for the Lords, MPs and Ministers get to work.
While there is an initial fear on the Ministers part that the new Parliament will try to reopen old wounds, like the Declaration of indulgence or the size of the army, but they soon find that their fears were entirely misplaced. Parliament, neutered as it is, has no fight left in it. In fact, the ministers manage to get more out of Parliament then they could have possibly imagined. Spearheaded by Baron Godolphin and Sir John Ernle, the House of Commons votes to make the subsidies funding the Royal Bank permanent and hereditary. This is an amazing achievement, as such subsidies are rarely if ever made hereditary, but considering the importance of the financial institution to British power and the unreliability of Parliament over the past century, both the Government and the highly Royalist MPs deemed it necessary. With the most important matter dealt with, the ministers and Parliament can move on other business. Over the next few weeks Parliament votes many revenues to the King, including tonnage and poundage and the poll, land and hearth taxes. By the end of July the government introduces its last bill, a titles act, with the purpose of changing the name of the State Church from the Church of England to the Church of Albion, to better reflect the state of the realm.
Ironically it is this bill and not those dealing with taxation that causes opposition, made even more so since those who disagree are in the Lords rather than the Commons. Led by Bishop Henry Compton of London, these Peers and Bishops in the upper House see this proposal a direct attack on the sacrosanctity of the Church, anathema, and promise to block any vote to pass it, a public rejection of Charles III's ability to manage Parliament. With the threat of a political revolt on his hands, Lord Carmarthen, backed by his King, threatens to deprive all bishops who oppose the bill of their sees. This is enough to push Archbishop William Sancroft of Canturbery into taking his own action, fearing for his own position if the Sovereign begins to interfere directly in the running of the Church. Meeting in Lambeth palace,Marquess and Archbishop agree to a compromise: Bishop Compton, long a thorn in the Royal side, is deprived and replaced by Dean Edward Stillingfleet of St. Paul's aka the beauty of holiness, while the rest of the opposing Bishops are coerced into dropping their opposition. Without the Bishops, the Peers are forced to back down as well, knowing that their case is severely weakened by the withdrawal of their compatriots within the Lords Spiritual. While some of the "Compton circle" symbolically oppose the bill by abstaining, the rest toe the line and vote to pass it. In the end, the Crown gets its way, the bill is law and the Church of Albion is born.
However, this episode demonstrates the one area where Royal authority is weak: the Church. Shortly thereafter the King, seeking to rectify this situation, establishes the Ecclesiastical Commission under Royal prerogative. Given jurisdiction over the governance of the Church of England and empowered to try all offenses punishable under ecclesiastical law, the court is to be headed by Sir Robert Wright, an experienced judge backed by Lord Chief Justice Sir William Scroggs and made up of both lay clergy and legal professionals. In affect the commission is a revival of the old Court of High Commission, the former supreme ecclesiastic court of England, famously abolished by the Long Parliament in the 1641 Triennial Act. While there is some push back against the commission, it is muted thanks to Bishop Compton's deprival, the cowing of the other clergy and the Crown's actions following the passage of the Titles act.
On August 11th, the King, arriving at the Palace of Westminster, proceeds to summon the Lords and Commons to attend him in Westminster Hall. As Peers and MPs file into the hall, they are met by a sight- the monarch attired in full robes of state and head covered by the Imperial state crown- that is both unexpected and inexplicable. There was a babble of voices, and in the confusion the Serjeant-at-Arms had to call for silence three times before the noise died away. Then the King in a single sentence ordered the Lord Chancellor, lord Carmarthen, to dissolve Parliament. Carmarthen carries out the King's command and Charles promptly leaves the hall, heads to his waiting barge and returns to Whitehall. The entire episode took less then an hour, leaving Peers and MPs alike shocked and confused. Many had furnished their London lodgings for a long stay, a testament to their astonishment. While many express feelings of disbelief, the Royal family is more relieved then anything else. Parliament has been returned to its original position, a temporary assembly called for the purposes of revenue and passing laws, but nothing else. Never again shall it interfere in the governance of the Kingdom, in foreign affairs, in matters of the military or trade, in this the King is firm. Plus, as he expresses to Charles Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury " I have no desire to leave my back open while I focus on my front", meaning that the King doesn't want to leave Parliament sitting while he is in the middle east.
With the business of Government finished and preparations for departure nearly complete, the King has one final decision to make before leaving for Cyprus: choosing a Regent to rule in his absence. While there is precedent for appointing the Queen as Regent of the Realm, Marianna will be accompanying her husband to the Holy land, along with her sister-in-law the Princess Royal. So the decision is between Queen Mother Catherine and Henry-Sebastian, Duke of Kendal. While the French faction campaigns heavily in favor of the Duke, they are to be disappointed, for on August 16th Catherine of Braganza, Queen Mother of Great Britain and Ireland, is appointed Protector of the Realm and Captain General of the King's Forces. This decision causes a cooling of relations between the Royal brothers, who have hitherto been very close. The reasoning is best summed up by Lord Rochester: The King loves his brother but does not believe that he is yet ready for such an important responsibility. But as a concession, the King appoints the Duke Lieutenant Governor of the Realm, meaning that Kendal will be deputy to their mother and will become Regent should anything happen to the Queen Mother. Furthermore, Kendal is made guardian of the Children of Great Britain (formal name of the sons and daughters of the Sovereign): the Prince of Wales, Duke of Clarence & Avondale (Prince Robert, born December 24th, 1686) and Princess Louisa Maria (born June 28th, 1688).
Finally on August 23rd, the full Royal court departs Winchester for Portsmouth, where the fleet is waiting to take the King and his entourage to Cyprus. Once in Portsmouth, the Court, accompanied to the sounds of cannon fire from the city fortifications and music from the accompanying musicians, heads to the docks, where the new yacht HMY Britannia is anchored. It is here, at the docks, that the King formally bids his court farewell and the regency of his mother Catherine of Braganza begins. Now the King, Queen, Princess Royal, Duke and Duchess of York and Earl of Holderness board HMY Britannia, which sails out to the harbor to meet the rest of the assembled fleet and together begin the journey to Cyprus and the Holy Land.
Meanwhile, as the British fleet ways anchor, across Europe the other sovereigns are also making their way to Cyprus. In Portugal the Dukes of Bragança and Beja, oldest sons of King D. Pedro II, await the arrival of the British, intending to join the entourage of their cousin Charles III. From Versailles, King Louis, his wife Maria Theresa, Grandmaster Louis de Bourbon, Prince de Condé and the Dauphin & Dauphine travel to the port of Toulon, the home of the French flotte du Levant (Levant Fleet), where they embark for Cyprus. In Italy, the various monarchs have decided to travel together. Duke Vittorio Amedeo II and Duchess Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici of Savoy travel to Florence, joining Duke Francesco II d'Este and Duchess Élisabeth Thérèse de Lorraine of Modena and Grand Prince Francesco de' Medici and Grand Princess Maria Beatrice d'Este of Tuscany, from where the whole group heads next to Rome, to gain a blessing from Pope Innocent and finally on to the port of Taranto, where they board awaiting Genoan and Spanish ships.
In Northern Europe, Stadtholder William III and Princess Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate, the Prince and Princess of Orange, joined by the recently arrived Crown Prince Frederick of Denmark & Norway, sail from Amsterdam, their ships laden with needed supplies for the troops. Meanwhile, the German Electors Maximilian II Emanuel and Archduchess Maria Antonia of Bavaria, Karl II and Anne of the Palatine, Johann Georg III and Anna Sophie of Saxony, and Karl I and Maria Anna Josepha of Brandenburg, slowly make their way to Vienna, joining the Emperor, Empress and Prince & Princess of Austrias in awaiting their last traveling companions, Crown Prince Jakub Ludwig and Tsarevich Peter Alexeyevich, who arrive on September 4th. Together the German, Polish and Russian parties set out for the port of Trieste, where the board the waiting vessels of the Knights Hospitaller, who convey them to Cyprus. After several weeks on the open seas, the royals begin to arrive in mid-September. First to land on September 6th, at Limassol, are the Italians, who bring with them sad tidings from the Papal states: on August 12th Pope Innocent XI breathed his last. Considering his great efforts in bringing together the Holy League, it is a tragedy that he didn't live long enough to see Jerusalem returned to Christian rule. But time marches ever forward and the Church must have a head. Already the Cardinals are assembling in Rome to elect Innocent's successor, and, with the normally interfering European Sovereigns out of communication, there is reason to hope that this conclave will go smother then previous ones. Meanwhile the Italian rulers are quickly lodged at the city's medieval castle. A few days later, on September 10th, they are followed by the Habsburgs, Germans, Poles and Russians, who join the Italians in Limassol castle. Now come the French, who are lodged at the old Lusignan Royal Palace of Nicosia, now the residence of King Hugh V and his family. Now, on September 16th come the Anglo-Portuguese fleet,who are lodged with the French at Nicosia. Finally, last but not least, are the Dutch and Danish, who dock on September 19th. With the key players at last gathered in one place, a full council of war is held in Nicosia on September 24th, five days before the invasion.
With so many Sovereigns gathered in one room, many students of the Crusades are reminded of the famous Council of Acre, the meeting of the rulers of Otremer and Crusaders of Europe. Indeed, the Acre council is the only event that could compare to such an auspicious assembly. Never before in the history of Christendom has the Holy Roman Emperor, two Kings, four Prince-Electors, the Grandmasters of the Templar and Hospitaller orders and a host of nobles and clerics been assembled under one roof. Unfortunately for Christendom however, the council of Nicosia takes after its famous forbearer, with heavy arguments between the crowned heads over who would lead the armies, on whether or not they should go with the Supreme council's battle plan or create their own and over who will gain what territory. Thankfully, the Princess of Austrias, along with her sister and brother-in-law the King and Queen of Great Britain, successfully act as mediators between the their powerful relatives and manage to come to a compromise solution: the Supreme council's battle plan will remain intact, with field command invested in the various generals and all talk of territory shall be deferred until the end of the campaign. While not by any means a perfect solution, it is enough to stop fears of a postponement of the invasion.
Finally September 29th, D-day, arrives. In the early morning religious services of all Christian sects are held, in honor of St. Michael the Archangel, before the troops march onto their transports, sail to join the warships and finally head to their destiny. Thanks to favorable winds, the fleet carrying the third corps arrives off the coast of Cilicia that very night, beginning a punishing week long bombardment of the city of Tarsus, and landing troops to secure a beachhead. By the time the full army begins its siege on October 7th, the city leaders are practically begging the League to accept their surrender. Not surprising when one considers the fact that this region hasn't seen full warfare in over a century. The same is true at the battle of Acre a week later. Here, as elsewhere across the Muslim world, the fleet repeats the lessons of Algiers, bombing the city, landing troops and laying a joint land-sea siege. However, the League isn't so successful at Jaffa, the port closest to Jerusalem. There, on October 3rd, the fleet encounters a powerful Egyptian squadron, which gives battle. In a matter of hours the League fleet, mainly made up of transports and only a dozen or so Ships of the line, are badly beaten. Over two-dozen transports are sank, equaling around 10,000 men, along with 4 warships. The fleet is forced to retreat towards Acre, where, it is hoped, they will find shelter. Luckly for the League forces they do, joining the besieging forces of the second corps. Once ashore, Marshals de Lexembourg and Boufflers confer with their British colleagues and decide on a course of action: continue the battle plan to capture Acre for the time being and send word to Cyprus that a full fleet is needed for Jaffa.
With a total of 70,000 men, aided by the Rupertinoe cannons, arrayed against them, the city of Acre surrenders on October 23rd. By this time orders have arrived, via corvette, from Cyprus: in light of the failure at Jaffa and the rumors of a new Egyptian army on the way, all efforts in the Levant will be focused around Acre and the northern regions for the time being. In light of this the requested fleet, along with the fourth and fifth corps, will remain at Cyprus, as will the gathered Royals. While the third corps will continue its campaign in Cilicia, the fall of Acre effectively means the end of the levantine campaign for the year. Though the campaign season is over, the social season is just beginning in Cyprus. With the rulers of the richest and most powerful nations gathered in one place, its obvious that there will be numerous festivities, if for no other reason than to entertain the royals. The rest of the year sees a whirlwind of glittering balls, sumptuous banquets, magnificent entertainments, military reviews and many other events. However, underneath the pleasures of their hidden world, their is concern and even fear. Will they fail here, at the cusp of finally liberating the Holy land? Will the Egyptians repeat the actions of the infamous Saladin and drive them from Christ's patrimony? Or will the God's chosen people prevail, driving the infidel from the Holy land once and for all? The only thing that is certain is none of these questions will be answered this year.
In November word arrives that the Catholic world has a new Pope: on October 6th Cardinal Pietro Vito Ottoboni was elected to the Pontifical throne, taking the name Alexander VIII. As the dawn of a new decade approaches, many take the time to reflect on the past. The 1680s have seen advances the cause of Christendom more then the previous two centuries, encouraging cooperation between the various branches of Christianity, bringing great military victories and even lighting the distant hope of a reconciliation between Catholic and Protestants. With such glories in the past and present, the peoples of Christendom are hopeful that the new decade, and rapidly approaching new century, will bring even higher accomplishments, but only time will tell if those hopes will ring true or crash into disaster.
