ohhhh. misunderstood what you were talking about my bad. they weren't necessarily supporting Catholics as much as supporting who was in control of Britain. but the Stuarts being Catholic was why there weren't many in the colonies that did.
Where Kings and Empires Reign! A Reboot TL
- Thread starter herricks
- Start date
Still, why? New England was a region that enthusiastically supported Parliament's cause against the Stuart monarchy and later overthrew a Stuart-appointed royal governor after the Glorious Revolution, why would any of them (or anybody else in the American colonies for that matter) take up arms against the biggest military force in the Americas on behalf of a monarch across the sea who can't support them and whom they have every reason not to support?
wasn't aware of that about New England against the Stuart monarchy. wouldn't have posted it like that had i have known. as to everywhere else, 1 was just me assuming that the entire thirteen colonies wouldn't universally say F you to the Stuarts regaining power. and 2 in my first attempt at making this TL it was brought up that not all would continue to side with the Hanoverians once the Stuarts took power.
New Year New Campaigns
After wintering in Saxony, Frederick decided to immediately invade Bohemia again, before French or Russian forces could reach the area and support the Austrians. On April 18,1759 the main Prussian army advanced in multiple columns through the Ore Mountains, seeking a decisive engagement with Browne's forces, while the Silesian garrison under Schwerin advanced from Glatz to join them. On April 21 Bevern's column encountered an Austrian corps led by Count Königsegg near Reichenberg; the ensuing Battle of Reichenberg ended in a Prussian victory, and the Prussian forces continued to advance on Prague.
The invading columns reunited north of Prague, while the retreating Austrians reformed under the command of Prince Charles of Lorraine to the city's east, and on May 6 the two armies fought the Battle of Prague. Both sides suffered heavy casualties, and both Browne and Schwerin were killed, but the Prussians forced the Austrians back into the fortified city, which the invaders then besieged. Learning of the attack on Prague, Austrian commander Count Leopold von Daun advanced from the east with a force of 30,000 men. Daun arrived too late to join the Battle of Prague, but he collected thousands of scattered Austrians who had escaped from the battle; with these reinforcements he slowly moved to relieve the city.
Trying to simultaneously besiege Prague and face Daun, Frederick contemplated dividing his forces. In late May however a 45,000 strong Russian Army under Field Marshal Stepan Fyodorovich Apraksin reinforced a 19,000-man army under Bevern at nearby Kolín and assess the situation. Now with a sufficient force to resist Daun's advance, Bevern and Apraksin attacked the Austrian position. The resulting Battle of Kolín on June 18 ended in a decisive victory for the Grand Alliance virtually destroying Daun’s army.
With no prospect of being relieved, Austrian forces in Prague surrendered on July 2 effectively giving all of Bohemia to the Grand Alliance. By September, nearly 120,000 Russo-Prussian forces were nearing Brno and the main Austrian fortress in Moravia.
Before stopping for the winter Dutch-Hanoverian forces had moved into the Austrian Netherlands capturing Antwerp on November 1, 1758 after a three week siege. On March 8,1759 Field Marshall Ernest and 35,000 Dutch troops began a new campaign west from Antwerp towards Ghent while the Duke of Cumberland moved south towards Brussels with 50,000 hoping to keep France from consolidating their forces in one area. Ghent was defended by only 18,000 troops and after only five hours. After a quick refit Ernest was on the move once more charging towards the French border. France however was no longer alone as 30,000 Stuartist troops led by the Bonny Prince himself had recently arrived and on May 9 decisively defeated Ernest at the Battle of Ypres. Following the defeat Ernest withdrew to Ghent hoping to guard Cumberland’s flank as he besieged Brussels.
Sweden’s naval supremacy in the Baltic kept their positions more or less safe in Finland and Pomerania for the remainder of 1758. This supremacy however was to be short lived. On March 29,1759 a new state entered the war when a Danish fleet under Admiral Frederik Christian Kaas launched a surprise attack on the main Swedish fleet at the Battle off Gotland virtually destroying it. Eight days later Malmo was bombarded as 25,000 Danish forces invaded across the strait from Copenhagen while an additional 7,000 moved out of Norway marching on Gothenburg. The attack caught Sweden completely by surprise throwing a wrench into their spring plans. Malmo would fall after only five days allowing Danish forces to move further into Scania while the invasion force from Norway besieged Gothenburg on April 19.
As Denmark attacked Sweden proper 40,000 Prussian and Russian troops launched a new invasion of Pomerania on April 12. This time the allies blew through any defenses and ten days later began assaulting Stralsund. After four days of intense fighting Stralsund fell and within another week all Swedish Pomerania was occupied. In Finland Lopukhin launched a new assault on Helsinki with 110,000 men. Though the Swedes fought to halt the Russian horde they were outnumbered nearly 4-1. On May 15 after a brutal eight day fight the Battle of Helsinki ended with the Russian flag flying above the ruined city.
The entrance of Denmark into the war was the final nail into the coffin for Sweden and on June 1,1759 sued for peace with the Grand Alliance. Three weeks later Sweden officially left the war after signing the Peace of Flensburg.
Terms of the Peace of Flensburg were:
After wintering in Saxony, Frederick decided to immediately invade Bohemia again, before French or Russian forces could reach the area and support the Austrians. On April 18,1759 the main Prussian army advanced in multiple columns through the Ore Mountains, seeking a decisive engagement with Browne's forces, while the Silesian garrison under Schwerin advanced from Glatz to join them. On April 21 Bevern's column encountered an Austrian corps led by Count Königsegg near Reichenberg; the ensuing Battle of Reichenberg ended in a Prussian victory, and the Prussian forces continued to advance on Prague.
The invading columns reunited north of Prague, while the retreating Austrians reformed under the command of Prince Charles of Lorraine to the city's east, and on May 6 the two armies fought the Battle of Prague. Both sides suffered heavy casualties, and both Browne and Schwerin were killed, but the Prussians forced the Austrians back into the fortified city, which the invaders then besieged. Learning of the attack on Prague, Austrian commander Count Leopold von Daun advanced from the east with a force of 30,000 men. Daun arrived too late to join the Battle of Prague, but he collected thousands of scattered Austrians who had escaped from the battle; with these reinforcements he slowly moved to relieve the city.
Trying to simultaneously besiege Prague and face Daun, Frederick contemplated dividing his forces. In late May however a 45,000 strong Russian Army under Field Marshal Stepan Fyodorovich Apraksin reinforced a 19,000-man army under Bevern at nearby Kolín and assess the situation. Now with a sufficient force to resist Daun's advance, Bevern and Apraksin attacked the Austrian position. The resulting Battle of Kolín on June 18 ended in a decisive victory for the Grand Alliance virtually destroying Daun’s army.
With no prospect of being relieved, Austrian forces in Prague surrendered on July 2 effectively giving all of Bohemia to the Grand Alliance. By September, nearly 120,000 Russo-Prussian forces were nearing Brno and the main Austrian fortress in Moravia.
Before stopping for the winter Dutch-Hanoverian forces had moved into the Austrian Netherlands capturing Antwerp on November 1, 1758 after a three week siege. On March 8,1759 Field Marshall Ernest and 35,000 Dutch troops began a new campaign west from Antwerp towards Ghent while the Duke of Cumberland moved south towards Brussels with 50,000 hoping to keep France from consolidating their forces in one area. Ghent was defended by only 18,000 troops and after only five hours. After a quick refit Ernest was on the move once more charging towards the French border. France however was no longer alone as 30,000 Stuartist troops led by the Bonny Prince himself had recently arrived and on May 9 decisively defeated Ernest at the Battle of Ypres. Following the defeat Ernest withdrew to Ghent hoping to guard Cumberland’s flank as he besieged Brussels.
Sweden’s naval supremacy in the Baltic kept their positions more or less safe in Finland and Pomerania for the remainder of 1758. This supremacy however was to be short lived. On March 29,1759 a new state entered the war when a Danish fleet under Admiral Frederik Christian Kaas launched a surprise attack on the main Swedish fleet at the Battle off Gotland virtually destroying it. Eight days later Malmo was bombarded as 25,000 Danish forces invaded across the strait from Copenhagen while an additional 7,000 moved out of Norway marching on Gothenburg. The attack caught Sweden completely by surprise throwing a wrench into their spring plans. Malmo would fall after only five days allowing Danish forces to move further into Scania while the invasion force from Norway besieged Gothenburg on April 19.
As Denmark attacked Sweden proper 40,000 Prussian and Russian troops launched a new invasion of Pomerania on April 12. This time the allies blew through any defenses and ten days later began assaulting Stralsund. After four days of intense fighting Stralsund fell and within another week all Swedish Pomerania was occupied. In Finland Lopukhin launched a new assault on Helsinki with 110,000 men. Though the Swedes fought to halt the Russian horde they were outnumbered nearly 4-1. On May 15 after a brutal eight day fight the Battle of Helsinki ended with the Russian flag flying above the ruined city.
The entrance of Denmark into the war was the final nail into the coffin for Sweden and on June 1,1759 sued for peace with the Grand Alliance. Three weeks later Sweden officially left the war after signing the Peace of Flensburg.
Terms of the Peace of Flensburg were:
- Swedish Pomerania ceded to Prussia
- Scania ceded to Denmark
- Sweden retained Finland but forced to cede Gotland and the Aland Islands to Russia
- Demilitarization of Finland
- Surrendered remaining ships of the Swedish Navy to the allies.
Conquests
With the Fort William Henry Massacre enraging the populace thousands were joining the Hanoverian side of the conflict demanding blood. Loudoun was once again charged with taking the war to New France and destroying the French Army in North America. Though there were now thousands of new volunteers it would take time to train them into an effective fighting force. For the remainder of 1758 war against France was stagnate however horrific revenge raids and killings against the native tribes, most of whom were either neutral in the war or sometimes even Hanoverian allied, along the frontiers.
As Loudoun built up a force to invade and destroy New France in Florida, the American Hanoverians were gaining more successes. On October 16 the Siege of Castillo de San Marcos came to an end with the fortress surrendering to Goreham. Now commanding the southern theater, a newly promoted General Goreham set his sights on the last area of any major Spanish significance in Florida, Pensacola. Barely a month after capturing St. Augustine Goreham and nearly 3000 men headed west on the month-long journey to capture the settlement. On arriving at the town on January 2,1759 however Goreham discovered the town mostly abandoned with the soldiers and most of the civilians having fled to New Orleans in December.
By the spring of 1759 Loudoun and his nearly 18,000 troops were ready to invade New France. On April 1,1759 the America Hanoverian invasion of New France began as Loudoun led his forces out of New York and into Canada marching on Montreal. Though Paris knew that the invasion of New France was imminent the war in Europe had absolute priority. As such by the start of the invasion there was only 12,000 French troops in the entirety of New France and less than 4000 in the Montreal area. Outnumbered over 4-1 the French soldiers, instead of meeting the enemy in open battle, chose to defend Montreal itself. Instead of fighting through the street however Loudoun encircled the city, and the Siege of Montreal began barely a month after the invasion began going on for over two months before the city finally surrendered.
As the invasion of Canada was getting started, in the Southern Theater General Goreham was moving west towards the jewel of the Gulf Coast, the port of New Orleans. Though undefended by French or Spanish soldiers the largely unsettled terrain made the march a slow process. By the time they reached the Mississippi it was early May and Goreham’s 2500 men were exhausted. For the rest of May the army encamped on the eastern shore of the great river while the men rested, and boats and rafts were constructed. Finally on June 7 they were ready to cross the Mississippi and assault New Orleans. Over the course of two days the entire army along with their artillery and supplies were transported across the river before moving south to the town. New Orleans was protected by 500 Spanish and 1600 French soldiers. Though fairly close in size the Franco-Spanish force was mostly untrained and poorly equipped. When the Battle of New Orleans occurred on June 21 it was, while not a cake walk, a short engagement with the defenders holding out only 3 hours before they surrendered. With the capture of New Orleans the America Hanoverians now had virtual control over the entire Southern Theater and the war here was over.
Three weeks after the Battle of New Orleans, France was dealt another blow in the Americas as Siege of Montreal ended with the towns surrender on July 9. Loudoun and his army could see the end of the fighting in America in sight now and plans to take on of the final two French strongholds in northern America were made. On August 1, 1759 General Loudoun for the city of Quebec. By now, Quebec City had roughly 3000 regular and 5000 militia soldiers in its vicinity. With 18,000 Americans moving on it the coming engagement to capture Quebec City would be the largest of the North American Theater of this war. And that engagement would come in late August just outside the city on the land of a farmer named Abraham.
The Battle of the Plains of Abraham would begin just before noon on August 27 as artillery began pounding at one another’s position. For four hours the battle would rage as the two sides attempted to out move and overwhelm the other. By late afternoon the farm was littered with the bodies of the dead and injured and both sides were exhausted. Finally, as the sun began to lower in the sky the French commander made one final push at what was believed to be a weak point in the American lines. As columns of men charged forward the American soldiers repeatedly fired into their advance. In places the two lines converged in brief and bloody hand to hand fighting. In the end though, French forces began to retreat. By nightfall the Battle of the Plains of Abraham had ended. Over 3000 casualties had been sustained in the engagement however while the American forces were severely battered the French were whipped. Two days after the battle Quebec and its remaining defenders would surrender to General Loudoun saving themselves from a siege.
With New Orleans, Montreal, and Quebec in American hands the only remaining major position for France was the Fortress of Louisbourg and its 5500 soldiers. Although plans to take the town were being planned the Americans were in no rush. With no other allies within thousands of miles they were basically surrounded. This fact was driven home even more after the Battle of Grand Banks where the French fleet was decisively defeated and any hopes for supplies or relief from Europe were dashed. Aside from occasional skirmishes the war in North America was basically over however, until the Grand Alliance achieved victory in Europe actual peace would remain out of reach.
With the Fort William Henry Massacre enraging the populace thousands were joining the Hanoverian side of the conflict demanding blood. Loudoun was once again charged with taking the war to New France and destroying the French Army in North America. Though there were now thousands of new volunteers it would take time to train them into an effective fighting force. For the remainder of 1758 war against France was stagnate however horrific revenge raids and killings against the native tribes, most of whom were either neutral in the war or sometimes even Hanoverian allied, along the frontiers.
As Loudoun built up a force to invade and destroy New France in Florida, the American Hanoverians were gaining more successes. On October 16 the Siege of Castillo de San Marcos came to an end with the fortress surrendering to Goreham. Now commanding the southern theater, a newly promoted General Goreham set his sights on the last area of any major Spanish significance in Florida, Pensacola. Barely a month after capturing St. Augustine Goreham and nearly 3000 men headed west on the month-long journey to capture the settlement. On arriving at the town on January 2,1759 however Goreham discovered the town mostly abandoned with the soldiers and most of the civilians having fled to New Orleans in December.
By the spring of 1759 Loudoun and his nearly 18,000 troops were ready to invade New France. On April 1,1759 the America Hanoverian invasion of New France began as Loudoun led his forces out of New York and into Canada marching on Montreal. Though Paris knew that the invasion of New France was imminent the war in Europe had absolute priority. As such by the start of the invasion there was only 12,000 French troops in the entirety of New France and less than 4000 in the Montreal area. Outnumbered over 4-1 the French soldiers, instead of meeting the enemy in open battle, chose to defend Montreal itself. Instead of fighting through the street however Loudoun encircled the city, and the Siege of Montreal began barely a month after the invasion began going on for over two months before the city finally surrendered.
As the invasion of Canada was getting started, in the Southern Theater General Goreham was moving west towards the jewel of the Gulf Coast, the port of New Orleans. Though undefended by French or Spanish soldiers the largely unsettled terrain made the march a slow process. By the time they reached the Mississippi it was early May and Goreham’s 2500 men were exhausted. For the rest of May the army encamped on the eastern shore of the great river while the men rested, and boats and rafts were constructed. Finally on June 7 they were ready to cross the Mississippi and assault New Orleans. Over the course of two days the entire army along with their artillery and supplies were transported across the river before moving south to the town. New Orleans was protected by 500 Spanish and 1600 French soldiers. Though fairly close in size the Franco-Spanish force was mostly untrained and poorly equipped. When the Battle of New Orleans occurred on June 21 it was, while not a cake walk, a short engagement with the defenders holding out only 3 hours before they surrendered. With the capture of New Orleans the America Hanoverians now had virtual control over the entire Southern Theater and the war here was over.
Three weeks after the Battle of New Orleans, France was dealt another blow in the Americas as Siege of Montreal ended with the towns surrender on July 9. Loudoun and his army could see the end of the fighting in America in sight now and plans to take on of the final two French strongholds in northern America were made. On August 1, 1759 General Loudoun for the city of Quebec. By now, Quebec City had roughly 3000 regular and 5000 militia soldiers in its vicinity. With 18,000 Americans moving on it the coming engagement to capture Quebec City would be the largest of the North American Theater of this war. And that engagement would come in late August just outside the city on the land of a farmer named Abraham.
The Battle of the Plains of Abraham would begin just before noon on August 27 as artillery began pounding at one another’s position. For four hours the battle would rage as the two sides attempted to out move and overwhelm the other. By late afternoon the farm was littered with the bodies of the dead and injured and both sides were exhausted. Finally, as the sun began to lower in the sky the French commander made one final push at what was believed to be a weak point in the American lines. As columns of men charged forward the American soldiers repeatedly fired into their advance. In places the two lines converged in brief and bloody hand to hand fighting. In the end though, French forces began to retreat. By nightfall the Battle of the Plains of Abraham had ended. Over 3000 casualties had been sustained in the engagement however while the American forces were severely battered the French were whipped. Two days after the battle Quebec and its remaining defenders would surrender to General Loudoun saving themselves from a siege.
With New Orleans, Montreal, and Quebec in American hands the only remaining major position for France was the Fortress of Louisbourg and its 5500 soldiers. Although plans to take the town were being planned the Americans were in no rush. With no other allies within thousands of miles they were basically surrounded. This fact was driven home even more after the Battle of Grand Banks where the French fleet was decisively defeated and any hopes for supplies or relief from Europe were dashed. Aside from occasional skirmishes the war in North America was basically over however, until the Grand Alliance achieved victory in Europe actual peace would remain out of reach.
Closing the Gap
Austria and its Holy Roman Empire allies knew that something needed to change and soon if this war was to be won soon. Stripping many of its garrisons and bringing men from its Italian and German allies Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine gathered an army of over 140,000 men near Brno by the end of August. The Russo-Prussian army under overall command of Frederick the Great of Prussia now numbered nearly 175,000 troops with reinforcements from the closed Swedish front and from Bavaria. As the two armies moved towards one another the stage was being set for one of the largest engagements yet seen in Europe and on September 30,1759 it would begin in the little town of Austerlitz.
The Battle of Austerlitz, with over 300,000 people engaged in it, would last for three days of brutal and intense fighting across miles of the Moravia countryside. Tens of thousands of young men from all sides were struck down by hot lead, iron, and steel. Charles Alexander tried desperately to halt the Russo-Prussian advance by throwing wave after wave against the allies. Late in the afternoon on the third day of the battle though, Frederick showed his genius once more he outflanked the eastern flank of Alexander’s line and quickly began encircling and rolling up thousands of soldiers as he moved to destroy the Austrian led army. This began the end of the Battle of Austerlitz as the Austrian lines began to faulter and fail. As the sun set on the bloody battlefield Alexander’s army was split with he himself cut off from escape. By the next morning the remainder of his army had shattered fleeing in multiple directions and Marshall Alexander finally surrendering his remaining 20,000 troops to Frederick.
With over 60,000 casualties the Battle of Austerlitz was the bloodiest engagement of the war and had effectively destroyed the Austrian army. Leaving little in the way of the Grand Alliance and Vienna. Defeat was inevitable now. To drive this message home Bavarian forces had captured Innsbruck and Linz on September 21 and October 11 and Venice, who had mostly focused on the Italian states, captured Trento on September 19 and, after the defeat of the Austrian Navy in the Battle off Pula on October 1, Rijeka on October 7. The final nail in the coffin came on November 7 after a 55,000 strong Franco-Austrian army was defeated by an allied army in the Battle of Paderborn. On November 22,1759 with Allied troops moving on Vienna the Empress asked for terms bringing the war in Austria and the Holy Roman Empire out of the war.
Peace in central Europe would officially come on January 11,1760 with the Treaty of Potsdam. King Frederick wanted to impose harsh terms on Austria however, its allies convinced him to make easier terms. The terms of the Treaty of Potsdam were:
As the Austrian war effort collapsed the war in the Low Countries against France and Stuartist England was taking more of the center stage. Brussels had fallen on June 29 and Cumberland and Ernest spent the next two months preparing and growing his army for a drive into France. With reinforcements From Hanover, Prussia, and Denmark the two armies had swelled to 55,000 under Ernest and 90,000 under Cumberland. On September 15 the two armies went on the offensive moving to capture the remainder of the Low Countries and move into France. Ernest once again moved towards the Channel this time intent on defeating the Stuartist force to his front and reach the Channel ports. The first engagements of this new offensive occurred on September 21 when two portions of each army clashed in the Battle of Lendelede. Though the Stuartist were technically victorious in the battle as the allies retreated, they had to withdraw themselves the next day to keep from being cut off. Ten days later Ernest met the Stuartist army once more in the Battle of Passchendaele.
For thirty-six hours the two sides tried their best to destroy the other in intense battle before the Stuartist commander, Crown Prince Charles Stuart, made a fatal error. Seizing the moment allied forces broke the army in two surrounding each section in tow. four hours after his encirclement a now wounded Prince Charles surrendered his army and was marched into captivity. The destruction of the Suartist army opened the way to the Channel for Ernest and by December had captured Calais and Dunkirk.
Cumberland’s march towards the border as much more contested. Over the course of a month over a dozen small to medium sized engagements were fought against some of General Victor-François 100,000 troops. By mid-October however Cumberland had finally reached his first major objective and after a four day battle the city of Mons fell to the allies. A month later Cumberland was invading France.
It had been a goal of the House of Hanover since the beginning to retake Britain and drive the Stuarts back into the sea. However, until the Stuartist Royal Navy was destroyed that was but a pipe dream. The war at sea had seen no major fleet actions in European waters until the Battle off Pula. Though the Stuart Fleet was large it wasn’t indestructible. With Sweden out of the war an allied fleet was being assembled in Bremerhaven to make a challenge to destroy the Stuartis fleet. Finally, it was ready. On December 4 nearly 100 ships from Hanover, Denmark, the Dutch Republic, and Russia began sailing towards England and the mouth of the Thames to draw the enemy into battle. London took the bait sending the fleet to engage and on December 8 the two sides met at Dogger Bank. The Battle of Dogger Bank was the largest naval engagement of the war with over 170 ships participating. For over 24 hours the seas were the scene of intense carnage as the battle raged as the Stuartist tried to stop the larger fleet. In the end though they would fail with over ¾’s of its fleet either sunk, damaged, or captured. Though there were still Stuart ships out there they couldn’t rise to the combined allied fleet and England was effectively open for invasion.
Austria and its Holy Roman Empire allies knew that something needed to change and soon if this war was to be won soon. Stripping many of its garrisons and bringing men from its Italian and German allies Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine gathered an army of over 140,000 men near Brno by the end of August. The Russo-Prussian army under overall command of Frederick the Great of Prussia now numbered nearly 175,000 troops with reinforcements from the closed Swedish front and from Bavaria. As the two armies moved towards one another the stage was being set for one of the largest engagements yet seen in Europe and on September 30,1759 it would begin in the little town of Austerlitz.
The Battle of Austerlitz, with over 300,000 people engaged in it, would last for three days of brutal and intense fighting across miles of the Moravia countryside. Tens of thousands of young men from all sides were struck down by hot lead, iron, and steel. Charles Alexander tried desperately to halt the Russo-Prussian advance by throwing wave after wave against the allies. Late in the afternoon on the third day of the battle though, Frederick showed his genius once more he outflanked the eastern flank of Alexander’s line and quickly began encircling and rolling up thousands of soldiers as he moved to destroy the Austrian led army. This began the end of the Battle of Austerlitz as the Austrian lines began to faulter and fail. As the sun set on the bloody battlefield Alexander’s army was split with he himself cut off from escape. By the next morning the remainder of his army had shattered fleeing in multiple directions and Marshall Alexander finally surrendering his remaining 20,000 troops to Frederick.
With over 60,000 casualties the Battle of Austerlitz was the bloodiest engagement of the war and had effectively destroyed the Austrian army. Leaving little in the way of the Grand Alliance and Vienna. Defeat was inevitable now. To drive this message home Bavarian forces had captured Innsbruck and Linz on September 21 and October 11 and Venice, who had mostly focused on the Italian states, captured Trento on September 19 and, after the defeat of the Austrian Navy in the Battle off Pula on October 1, Rijeka on October 7. The final nail in the coffin came on November 7 after a 55,000 strong Franco-Austrian army was defeated by an allied army in the Battle of Paderborn. On November 22,1759 with Allied troops moving on Vienna the Empress asked for terms bringing the war in Austria and the Holy Roman Empire out of the war.
Peace in central Europe would officially come on January 11,1760 with the Treaty of Potsdam. King Frederick wanted to impose harsh terms on Austria however, its allies convinced him to make easier terms. The terms of the Treaty of Potsdam were:
- Prussia annexes roughly half of Saxony
- Prussia annexes Lower Silesia
- Russia receives war reparations
- Bavaria annexes surrounding states and disputed territories
- Venice annexes the Duchy of Milan
- The Dutch Republic annexes the Austrian Netherlands and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège
- Allied troops allowed to travel through Austrian territory
As the Austrian war effort collapsed the war in the Low Countries against France and Stuartist England was taking more of the center stage. Brussels had fallen on June 29 and Cumberland and Ernest spent the next two months preparing and growing his army for a drive into France. With reinforcements From Hanover, Prussia, and Denmark the two armies had swelled to 55,000 under Ernest and 90,000 under Cumberland. On September 15 the two armies went on the offensive moving to capture the remainder of the Low Countries and move into France. Ernest once again moved towards the Channel this time intent on defeating the Stuartist force to his front and reach the Channel ports. The first engagements of this new offensive occurred on September 21 when two portions of each army clashed in the Battle of Lendelede. Though the Stuartist were technically victorious in the battle as the allies retreated, they had to withdraw themselves the next day to keep from being cut off. Ten days later Ernest met the Stuartist army once more in the Battle of Passchendaele.
For thirty-six hours the two sides tried their best to destroy the other in intense battle before the Stuartist commander, Crown Prince Charles Stuart, made a fatal error. Seizing the moment allied forces broke the army in two surrounding each section in tow. four hours after his encirclement a now wounded Prince Charles surrendered his army and was marched into captivity. The destruction of the Suartist army opened the way to the Channel for Ernest and by December had captured Calais and Dunkirk.
Cumberland’s march towards the border as much more contested. Over the course of a month over a dozen small to medium sized engagements were fought against some of General Victor-François 100,000 troops. By mid-October however Cumberland had finally reached his first major objective and after a four day battle the city of Mons fell to the allies. A month later Cumberland was invading France.
It had been a goal of the House of Hanover since the beginning to retake Britain and drive the Stuarts back into the sea. However, until the Stuartist Royal Navy was destroyed that was but a pipe dream. The war at sea had seen no major fleet actions in European waters until the Battle off Pula. Though the Stuart Fleet was large it wasn’t indestructible. With Sweden out of the war an allied fleet was being assembled in Bremerhaven to make a challenge to destroy the Stuartis fleet. Finally, it was ready. On December 4 nearly 100 ships from Hanover, Denmark, the Dutch Republic, and Russia began sailing towards England and the mouth of the Thames to draw the enemy into battle. London took the bait sending the fleet to engage and on December 8 the two sides met at Dogger Bank. The Battle of Dogger Bank was the largest naval engagement of the war with over 170 ships participating. For over 24 hours the seas were the scene of intense carnage as the battle raged as the Stuartist tried to stop the larger fleet. In the end though they would fail with over ¾’s of its fleet either sunk, damaged, or captured. Though there were still Stuart ships out there they couldn’t rise to the combined allied fleet and England was effectively open for invasion.
Death Throes
As the year turned to 1760 the war entered its third year and both sides were determined to make it the final year. Victory over Austria had breathed new life into the Venetian war effort. Venice’s 35,000 strong army was now being bolstered by 15,000 Bavarian and 25,000 Russian soldiers with Russia’s Count Pyotr Saltykov given overall command. With France being invaded from the north Paris had little it could send to bolster its allies in Italy. Facing the Grand Alliance army were only 45,000 Sardinian, Genoese, and Spanish troops.
On March 16, 1760 allied forces launched a two pronged invasion into Parma with 25,000 and Sardinia with 50,000. In Sardinia Saltykov marched rapidly towards Alessandria capturing the city a week later after the Battle of Bassignano. From Alessandria the allies had their sights on the Sardinian capital. On April 1 the first of what would collectively be called the Six Battles for Turin in the Battle of Chieri lasting for five hours before the city fell. From Chieri the Allied army continued to move and over the next two weeks the area around Turin witnessed almost continuous action.
On April 3 the Battle of the Po was fought ending in Saltykov withdrawing. Three days after the Battle of Moncalieri forced the defenders back. Barely a day after the Allies were victorious yet again at Orbassano and again two days after that at Rivoli. On April 12 the sixth engagement in less than two weeks began with the Battle of Parella. For the next three days the Battle of Parella raged as the two sides clashed over and over. Though the defenders led by Sardinian crown prince Victor Amadeus put up fierce resistance they were slowly being pushed back and finally, on April 15 the prince had had enough and withdrew from the field. Turin was now surrounded and Saltykov prepared to besiege it. He wouldn’t have to however as Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia declared the city open and sued for peace. With the capture of the Spanish led army in Parma and that army moving unabated towards La Spezia Genoa surrendered as well ending the war in northern Italy.
In the Low Countries and northern France, the allies spent the winter reorganizing. Though not entirely abandoning the front, Cumberland and 20,000 Hanoverian troops had withdrawn to Antwerp in preparation for an invasion of England. In their place however, 40,000 Prussian troops and 10,000 Russian under Prince Henry of Prussia had arrived in January. On March 2, 1760 Prince Henry and 75,000 allied troops began marching deeper into France towards Cambrai. Louis de Bourbon had 85,000 French troops under his command and moved to stop Henry. On March 17,1760 the two sides met north of Cambrai in the Battle of Scheldt.
The Battle of Scheldt was the largest engagement fought in France during the war. For two days the battle raged as the two sides clashed in immense carnage. For most of the engagement the battle was mostly evened out until 3pm on the second day when a Russo-Dutch division broke through the French flank encircling 20,000 troops and forcing their surrender. This action broke the French back and by nightfall Louis was retreating with roughly half of his army left. Cambrai was now opened for the taking and Henry captured the city on March 27.
Allied forces were now 100 miles from Paris and the French people had had enough. On April 16, 1760 King Louis XV called for an end to the war asking for peace with the Grand Alliance. Four days later Spain agreed to peace as well leaving Stuartist Britain as the only combatant left. War, however, was now on their shores.
In the early morning of April 1, 1760 English citizens awoke to the sights of hundreds of Hanoverian, Danish, and Dutch warships sailing into the Thames Estuary headed towards the river. The Duke of Cumberland, accompanied by his brother King Frederick himself, had an army of 20,000 Hanoverian, 3,000 Dutch, and 7,000 Danish troops under his command to capture London and retake the British Isles for the House of Hanover. By noon the first troopships were docking in the town of Gravesend unresisted while the Dutch and Danish soldiers occupied Tilbury. After a week the allied army had disembarked and had formed a several mile perimeter around their landing zone and were preparing to begin their offensive.
So far Cumberland’s army had encountered only light resistance making some hope that this campaign would be a walkover and London would fall easily. That dream however was soon shattered. On April 14 a Stuartist army of 27,000 under General John Drummond attacked Cumberland at Darenth. Though taking the Hanoverian force off guard and eventually pushing them back soon reinforcements were brought forth and by the end of the day Drummond had withdrawn. Now it was time for Cumberland to advance. For the next ten days the Hanoverians moved towards London. While no large engagements occurred small unit skirmishes as happened almost daily with successes and defeats on both sides. Civilian response had been mixed at first, but as Cumberland advanced more and more were coming to the Hanoverian cause.
As Cumberland entered Lewisham General Drummond would finally move in force again attacking the invading force on April 28. Officially called the Battle of Lewisham, unofficially men called it the Battle of Kings as both King Frederick and King James were present on the field. For hours the town saw intense bloody street fighting. Though the Stuartist force outnumbered them, the Hanoverians were much more experienced and slowly more and more Stuartist soldiers fell either by sword or flag of surrender. Finally, Drummond new defeat was certain and ordered retreat. However, as they began to withdraw, they were cutoff by gunfire behind them. Roughly 3000 Hanoverian loyalist militia bolstered by 1000 Danish troops that had crossed the Thames were behind them and firing mercilessly into their retreat. Fighting would go on throughout the night between the opposing sides as Drummond attempted a breakout. By dawn though the futility of the effort was evident.
At 9am General Drummond and King James came forth under a flag of truce and surrendered themselves and London. It was surrendered to the Duke of Cumberland alone however. During the last hours of the fighting a lucky cannon shot had struck king Frederick on his horse killing the animal and tearing both of the king’s legs off causing him to die half an hour later. While the house of Hanover had retaken London and captured the Stuartist king its own king had died in the process and the new king King George III was an ocean away and wouldn’t know he was king for over a month.
As the year turned to 1760 the war entered its third year and both sides were determined to make it the final year. Victory over Austria had breathed new life into the Venetian war effort. Venice’s 35,000 strong army was now being bolstered by 15,000 Bavarian and 25,000 Russian soldiers with Russia’s Count Pyotr Saltykov given overall command. With France being invaded from the north Paris had little it could send to bolster its allies in Italy. Facing the Grand Alliance army were only 45,000 Sardinian, Genoese, and Spanish troops.
On March 16, 1760 allied forces launched a two pronged invasion into Parma with 25,000 and Sardinia with 50,000. In Sardinia Saltykov marched rapidly towards Alessandria capturing the city a week later after the Battle of Bassignano. From Alessandria the allies had their sights on the Sardinian capital. On April 1 the first of what would collectively be called the Six Battles for Turin in the Battle of Chieri lasting for five hours before the city fell. From Chieri the Allied army continued to move and over the next two weeks the area around Turin witnessed almost continuous action.
On April 3 the Battle of the Po was fought ending in Saltykov withdrawing. Three days after the Battle of Moncalieri forced the defenders back. Barely a day after the Allies were victorious yet again at Orbassano and again two days after that at Rivoli. On April 12 the sixth engagement in less than two weeks began with the Battle of Parella. For the next three days the Battle of Parella raged as the two sides clashed over and over. Though the defenders led by Sardinian crown prince Victor Amadeus put up fierce resistance they were slowly being pushed back and finally, on April 15 the prince had had enough and withdrew from the field. Turin was now surrounded and Saltykov prepared to besiege it. He wouldn’t have to however as Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia declared the city open and sued for peace. With the capture of the Spanish led army in Parma and that army moving unabated towards La Spezia Genoa surrendered as well ending the war in northern Italy.
In the Low Countries and northern France, the allies spent the winter reorganizing. Though not entirely abandoning the front, Cumberland and 20,000 Hanoverian troops had withdrawn to Antwerp in preparation for an invasion of England. In their place however, 40,000 Prussian troops and 10,000 Russian under Prince Henry of Prussia had arrived in January. On March 2, 1760 Prince Henry and 75,000 allied troops began marching deeper into France towards Cambrai. Louis de Bourbon had 85,000 French troops under his command and moved to stop Henry. On March 17,1760 the two sides met north of Cambrai in the Battle of Scheldt.
The Battle of Scheldt was the largest engagement fought in France during the war. For two days the battle raged as the two sides clashed in immense carnage. For most of the engagement the battle was mostly evened out until 3pm on the second day when a Russo-Dutch division broke through the French flank encircling 20,000 troops and forcing their surrender. This action broke the French back and by nightfall Louis was retreating with roughly half of his army left. Cambrai was now opened for the taking and Henry captured the city on March 27.
Allied forces were now 100 miles from Paris and the French people had had enough. On April 16, 1760 King Louis XV called for an end to the war asking for peace with the Grand Alliance. Four days later Spain agreed to peace as well leaving Stuartist Britain as the only combatant left. War, however, was now on their shores.
In the early morning of April 1, 1760 English citizens awoke to the sights of hundreds of Hanoverian, Danish, and Dutch warships sailing into the Thames Estuary headed towards the river. The Duke of Cumberland, accompanied by his brother King Frederick himself, had an army of 20,000 Hanoverian, 3,000 Dutch, and 7,000 Danish troops under his command to capture London and retake the British Isles for the House of Hanover. By noon the first troopships were docking in the town of Gravesend unresisted while the Dutch and Danish soldiers occupied Tilbury. After a week the allied army had disembarked and had formed a several mile perimeter around their landing zone and were preparing to begin their offensive.
So far Cumberland’s army had encountered only light resistance making some hope that this campaign would be a walkover and London would fall easily. That dream however was soon shattered. On April 14 a Stuartist army of 27,000 under General John Drummond attacked Cumberland at Darenth. Though taking the Hanoverian force off guard and eventually pushing them back soon reinforcements were brought forth and by the end of the day Drummond had withdrawn. Now it was time for Cumberland to advance. For the next ten days the Hanoverians moved towards London. While no large engagements occurred small unit skirmishes as happened almost daily with successes and defeats on both sides. Civilian response had been mixed at first, but as Cumberland advanced more and more were coming to the Hanoverian cause.
As Cumberland entered Lewisham General Drummond would finally move in force again attacking the invading force on April 28. Officially called the Battle of Lewisham, unofficially men called it the Battle of Kings as both King Frederick and King James were present on the field. For hours the town saw intense bloody street fighting. Though the Stuartist force outnumbered them, the Hanoverians were much more experienced and slowly more and more Stuartist soldiers fell either by sword or flag of surrender. Finally, Drummond new defeat was certain and ordered retreat. However, as they began to withdraw, they were cutoff by gunfire behind them. Roughly 3000 Hanoverian loyalist militia bolstered by 1000 Danish troops that had crossed the Thames were behind them and firing mercilessly into their retreat. Fighting would go on throughout the night between the opposing sides as Drummond attempted a breakout. By dawn though the futility of the effort was evident.
At 9am General Drummond and King James came forth under a flag of truce and surrendered themselves and London. It was surrendered to the Duke of Cumberland alone however. During the last hours of the fighting a lucky cannon shot had struck king Frederick on his horse killing the animal and tearing both of the king’s legs off causing him to die half an hour later. While the house of Hanover had retaken London and captured the Stuartist king its own king had died in the process and the new king King George III was an ocean away and wouldn’t know he was king for over a month.
Peace? Or the start of something new?
Delegates from the remaining warring states met in the small city state of Monaco on May 20, 1760. Peace talks went on for over three months but on September 1, 1760 the Treaty of Monaco was signed officially ending the war.
Per terms of the Treaty of Monaco:
The remaining members of the Quadruple Alliance and allies of the member nations to withdraw recognition and support of the Kingdoms of Scotland and Ireland and the House of Stuart and the House of Hanover as the legitimate ruling house of the British Isles and its colonial possessions.
The remaining members of the Quadruple Alliance and allies of the member nations recognize the legitimacy of the Peace of Flensburg and the Treaty of Potsdam.
The war was now officially over with a mixture of feelings on the final peace treaty. Fighting however hadn’t yet ended as Irish, Scottish, and Stuartist loyalists continued to fight government forces conventual for another for eight months and guerilla raids for much of a decade sapping British manpower and wealth leaving them in desperate need for income.
Delegates from the remaining warring states met in the small city state of Monaco on May 20, 1760. Peace talks went on for over three months but on September 1, 1760 the Treaty of Monaco was signed officially ending the war.
Per terms of the Treaty of Monaco:
The remaining members of the Quadruple Alliance and allies of the member nations to withdraw recognition and support of the Kingdoms of Scotland and Ireland and the House of Stuart and the House of Hanover as the legitimate ruling house of the British Isles and its colonial possessions.
The remaining members of the Quadruple Alliance and allies of the member nations recognize the legitimacy of the Peace of Flensburg and the Treaty of Potsdam.
- Official borders created in North America between Britain, Spain, and France.
- Spain cedes the Spanish Virgin Islands (Puerto Rico) to Denmark and the islands of Trinidad and Tobago to the Dutch Republic.
- The Republic of Venice to annex the Spanish controlled Duchy of Parma.
- The Republic of Genoa partitioned with the mainland being annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia and the island of Corsica by the Republic of Venice.
- The Dutch Republic to annex the Kerala area in India from France.
- Denmark to annex Pondicherry from France and acquire Dutch Coromandel from the Dutch Republic.
- Britain transfers control of its Indonesian possessions to the Dutch Republic.
The war was now officially over with a mixture of feelings on the final peace treaty. Fighting however hadn’t yet ended as Irish, Scottish, and Stuartist loyalists continued to fight government forces conventual for another for eight months and guerilla raids for much of a decade sapping British manpower and wealth leaving them in desperate need for income.