Good updates, Zoidberg! 
There's a small typo, it should be Policia National Peruana, if I'm not mistaken.
The Union Forever: A TL
- Thread starter Mac Gregor
- Start date
Damn. I know Spanish so I should have caught that. I fixed it btw.
Profile: Celso Serrano
Celso Serrano (1895-1949)
Celso Serrano was born on October 14, 1895 in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. His father was a Spanish immigrant from Galicia and his mother was an Italian immigrant from Sicily. In his youth, Serrano took an interest in the indigenous cultures of Bolivia, Latin American and European history, military history, religion, among other things. In 1913, Serrano joined the Bolivian military shortly before his eighteenth birthday. In 1916, Serrano married Louisa Acosta (September 30, 1899-February 3, 1935), a moderately wealthy young woman of Spanish, German and Aymara descent from Santa Cruz. Acosta died of throat cancer in 1935. Serrano never remarried and had no children.
Throughout his adult life, Serrano was a staunch Bolivian patriot. Serrano became an infantry officer in 1917. By the age of thirty, he became a general in the Bolivian Army and the head of an infantry division. Throughout his early adulthood, Serrano was deeply disillusioned by the state of his nation of Bolivia, a nation suffering from endemic poverty, years of political instability and the loss of a coastline during the First Atacama War (1881-1884). It was also around this time that Serrano dreamed of Bolivia becoming a powerful and wealthy nation. Serrano also dreamed of Bolivia retaking land taken from them by Chile during the First Atacama War, regaining a coast line for Bolivia and opening up Bolivia to new trade routes, recourses and economic opportunities. Serrano also dreamed of Bolivia annexing the entirety of the Chaco region from Paraguay, as the Chaco region would bring great mineral and material wealth to Bolivia. A large number of generals and officers in the Bolivian military shared these views. During the 1920s, Serrano made many important contacts and friendships among many older and prominent men in the Bolivian military.
In 1927, Eduardo Ruiz (1871-1928) of the Liberal Party was elected civilian president of Bolivia. In spite of this, Ruiz was a weak president who was reviled by most generals and officers in the Bolivian military, the institution which had held the reins of power in Bolivia for so many decades. On October 22, 1928, riots broke out all over major Bolivian cities against President Ruiz and his agenda to reduce the power of the Catholic Church in Bolivia. Over the next week, the riots continued and grew in intensity. On October 30, 1928, numerous infantry regiments, including that of General Serrano, joined the rioters and officially took up arms against the government. The next day, General Serrano was declared to be the leader of the anti-government resistance. Two days later, on November 2, 1928, a military coup d’état was launched by General Serrano and his supporters in the military and the general population in La Paz. As General Serrano and his forces marched into the Palacio Quemado, President Ruiz committed suicide by swallowing a cyanide pill while sitting at the desk in his office. Soon afterwards, Serrano declared himself President of Bolivia. Although at first an independent, Serrano established the Partido Nacional Boliviano or Bolivian National Party, a proto-corporatist and far-right political party, on September 10, 1929.
The first major victory for Serrano and his regime came less than two years after he took power. In 1930, war almost broke out between the dictatorial regimes of Bolivia and Paraguay over the disputed Chaco region. The Chaco Crisis began on May 4, 1930 after border clashes took place between Bolivian and Paraguayan troops along their disputed border in the Chaco region. Soldiers on both sides died as a result, and both Bolivian President Serrano and Paraguayan President Adolfo Rodriguez (1879-1938) blamed each other’s armies for starting the clashes. On May 18, 1930, Serrano sent Rodriquez an ultimatum; cede over to Bolivia the entirety of the Chaco region still under Paraguayan control or a state of war will exist between the two nations on July 1, 1930. The ultimatum was rejected two days later. Meanwhile, not wanting to see bloodshed so close to their borders, Argentina under President Hernando Pellegrini (1875-1961) and Brazil under President Luis Daniel Branco (1883-1950) announced on May 31, 1930 that they would be willing to mediate the Chaco dispute. The four presidents, Serrano, Rodriguez, Pellegrini and Branco, as well as various diplomats and ambassadors from all four nations, meet in the city of Montevideo, Uruguay from June 20 to October 1, 1930. In the end, Brazilian and Argentine arbitration prevented the Chaco Crisis from escalating into a war and the crisis was resolved in favor of Bolivia. The entirety of the Chaco region still under Paraguayan control was ceded to Bolivia in exchange for monetary reparations from Bolivia, and to a lesser extent Argentina and Brazil, to be paid in full by January 1, 1938. The outcome of the Montevideo Conference provided an enormous boost of internal support for the Serrano regime in Bolivia. It also led to the eventual deposition of President Rodriguez and the return of democracy to Paraguay in 1934.
Throughout the 1930s and first half of the 1940s, the Serrano regime greatly expanded the size and power of the Bolivian military, built numerous new factories and industrial parks and in doing so greatly industrialized Bolivia, established new public works programs, established new schools, nationalized numerous industries, built new roads, made use of new resources in the Chaco region, saw a great decrease in crime rates, among other things. However, all of this came at a heavy price. Serrano’s regime saw numerous human rights violations. Freedom of speech and freedom of the press were totally suppressed. The free market was nonexistent and the Bolivian economy was under stringent regulation. Non-Catholics were persecuted. Numerous opponents within the government were purged and either executed, imprisoned for life or exiled. The Bolivian secret police, the Policia del Estado Boliviana, were completely ruthless and corrupt and were often involved in the smuggling of illegal weapons and contraband. Numerous political dissidents and average citizens were also arrested and brutally tortured and murdered en masse by the aforementioned secret police. In addition, the aforementioned buildup of the Bolivian military was all for the purpose of Serrano’s ultimate and lifelong goal of reclaiming the Bolivian land lost during the First Atacama War and in doing so regaining Bolivia’s coastline.
On July 5, 1945, Serrano signed the Treaty of Cobija with Peruvian dictator and President Elbio Paz Armenta. The treaty was a diplomatic and military alliance between the authoritarian regimes of Bolivia and Peru with the long term goal of regaining land lost to the Chileans during the First Atacama War. According to numerous historians, Armenta and Serrano, who met personally many times both before and during the Second Atacama War, got along somewhat well, yet at the same time clashed and argued over numerous petty matters.
On the evening of November 3, 1948, Peru and Bolivia launched a surprise attack into northern Chile. The Second Atacama War (1948-1949) had begun. Before long, the United States of America and other nations in the Americas came to the aid of the beleaguered Republic of Chile. In less than a years’ time, the war began to go very badly for the Peruvian-Bolivian alliance. The surrender of General Marino Sedillo (1898-1980) to the United States Army and the liberation of occupied Chile proved to be the last straw for the Serrano regime. In spite of Serrano’s call to prepare for a guerrilla war in the Bolivian interior, the leadership of the beleaguered Bolivian Army had had all that it could take. On December 20, 1949, at around four in the morning, about 800 soldiers from the garrison of La Paz stormed the Palacio Quemado. President Serrano, still wearing pajamas, was dragged from his bed literally kicking and screaming. After some debate amongst the generals who launched the coup, Serrano was executed by firing squad in the palace courtyard. He was 54 years old. His body was then buried in an unmarked grave outside of La Paz.
Today, Serrano is considered to be one of the most infamous and murderous dictators of the 20th century.
Celso Serrano was born on October 14, 1895 in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. His father was a Spanish immigrant from Galicia and his mother was an Italian immigrant from Sicily. In his youth, Serrano took an interest in the indigenous cultures of Bolivia, Latin American and European history, military history, religion, among other things. In 1913, Serrano joined the Bolivian military shortly before his eighteenth birthday. In 1916, Serrano married Louisa Acosta (September 30, 1899-February 3, 1935), a moderately wealthy young woman of Spanish, German and Aymara descent from Santa Cruz. Acosta died of throat cancer in 1935. Serrano never remarried and had no children.
Throughout his adult life, Serrano was a staunch Bolivian patriot. Serrano became an infantry officer in 1917. By the age of thirty, he became a general in the Bolivian Army and the head of an infantry division. Throughout his early adulthood, Serrano was deeply disillusioned by the state of his nation of Bolivia, a nation suffering from endemic poverty, years of political instability and the loss of a coastline during the First Atacama War (1881-1884). It was also around this time that Serrano dreamed of Bolivia becoming a powerful and wealthy nation. Serrano also dreamed of Bolivia retaking land taken from them by Chile during the First Atacama War, regaining a coast line for Bolivia and opening up Bolivia to new trade routes, recourses and economic opportunities. Serrano also dreamed of Bolivia annexing the entirety of the Chaco region from Paraguay, as the Chaco region would bring great mineral and material wealth to Bolivia. A large number of generals and officers in the Bolivian military shared these views. During the 1920s, Serrano made many important contacts and friendships among many older and prominent men in the Bolivian military.
In 1927, Eduardo Ruiz (1871-1928) of the Liberal Party was elected civilian president of Bolivia. In spite of this, Ruiz was a weak president who was reviled by most generals and officers in the Bolivian military, the institution which had held the reins of power in Bolivia for so many decades. On October 22, 1928, riots broke out all over major Bolivian cities against President Ruiz and his agenda to reduce the power of the Catholic Church in Bolivia. Over the next week, the riots continued and grew in intensity. On October 30, 1928, numerous infantry regiments, including that of General Serrano, joined the rioters and officially took up arms against the government. The next day, General Serrano was declared to be the leader of the anti-government resistance. Two days later, on November 2, 1928, a military coup d’état was launched by General Serrano and his supporters in the military and the general population in La Paz. As General Serrano and his forces marched into the Palacio Quemado, President Ruiz committed suicide by swallowing a cyanide pill while sitting at the desk in his office. Soon afterwards, Serrano declared himself President of Bolivia. Although at first an independent, Serrano established the Partido Nacional Boliviano or Bolivian National Party, a proto-corporatist and far-right political party, on September 10, 1929.
The first major victory for Serrano and his regime came less than two years after he took power. In 1930, war almost broke out between the dictatorial regimes of Bolivia and Paraguay over the disputed Chaco region. The Chaco Crisis began on May 4, 1930 after border clashes took place between Bolivian and Paraguayan troops along their disputed border in the Chaco region. Soldiers on both sides died as a result, and both Bolivian President Serrano and Paraguayan President Adolfo Rodriguez (1879-1938) blamed each other’s armies for starting the clashes. On May 18, 1930, Serrano sent Rodriquez an ultimatum; cede over to Bolivia the entirety of the Chaco region still under Paraguayan control or a state of war will exist between the two nations on July 1, 1930. The ultimatum was rejected two days later. Meanwhile, not wanting to see bloodshed so close to their borders, Argentina under President Hernando Pellegrini (1875-1961) and Brazil under President Luis Daniel Branco (1883-1950) announced on May 31, 1930 that they would be willing to mediate the Chaco dispute. The four presidents, Serrano, Rodriguez, Pellegrini and Branco, as well as various diplomats and ambassadors from all four nations, meet in the city of Montevideo, Uruguay from June 20 to October 1, 1930. In the end, Brazilian and Argentine arbitration prevented the Chaco Crisis from escalating into a war and the crisis was resolved in favor of Bolivia. The entirety of the Chaco region still under Paraguayan control was ceded to Bolivia in exchange for monetary reparations from Bolivia, and to a lesser extent Argentina and Brazil, to be paid in full by January 1, 1938. The outcome of the Montevideo Conference provided an enormous boost of internal support for the Serrano regime in Bolivia. It also led to the eventual deposition of President Rodriguez and the return of democracy to Paraguay in 1934.
Throughout the 1930s and first half of the 1940s, the Serrano regime greatly expanded the size and power of the Bolivian military, built numerous new factories and industrial parks and in doing so greatly industrialized Bolivia, established new public works programs, established new schools, nationalized numerous industries, built new roads, made use of new resources in the Chaco region, saw a great decrease in crime rates, among other things. However, all of this came at a heavy price. Serrano’s regime saw numerous human rights violations. Freedom of speech and freedom of the press were totally suppressed. The free market was nonexistent and the Bolivian economy was under stringent regulation. Non-Catholics were persecuted. Numerous opponents within the government were purged and either executed, imprisoned for life or exiled. The Bolivian secret police, the Policia del Estado Boliviana, were completely ruthless and corrupt and were often involved in the smuggling of illegal weapons and contraband. Numerous political dissidents and average citizens were also arrested and brutally tortured and murdered en masse by the aforementioned secret police. In addition, the aforementioned buildup of the Bolivian military was all for the purpose of Serrano’s ultimate and lifelong goal of reclaiming the Bolivian land lost during the First Atacama War and in doing so regaining Bolivia’s coastline.
On July 5, 1945, Serrano signed the Treaty of Cobija with Peruvian dictator and President Elbio Paz Armenta. The treaty was a diplomatic and military alliance between the authoritarian regimes of Bolivia and Peru with the long term goal of regaining land lost to the Chileans during the First Atacama War. According to numerous historians, Armenta and Serrano, who met personally many times both before and during the Second Atacama War, got along somewhat well, yet at the same time clashed and argued over numerous petty matters.
On the evening of November 3, 1948, Peru and Bolivia launched a surprise attack into northern Chile. The Second Atacama War (1948-1949) had begun. Before long, the United States of America and other nations in the Americas came to the aid of the beleaguered Republic of Chile. In less than a years’ time, the war began to go very badly for the Peruvian-Bolivian alliance. The surrender of General Marino Sedillo (1898-1980) to the United States Army and the liberation of occupied Chile proved to be the last straw for the Serrano regime. In spite of Serrano’s call to prepare for a guerrilla war in the Bolivian interior, the leadership of the beleaguered Bolivian Army had had all that it could take. On December 20, 1949, at around four in the morning, about 800 soldiers from the garrison of La Paz stormed the Palacio Quemado. President Serrano, still wearing pajamas, was dragged from his bed literally kicking and screaming. After some debate amongst the generals who launched the coup, Serrano was executed by firing squad in the palace courtyard. He was 54 years old. His body was then buried in an unmarked grave outside of La Paz.
Today, Serrano is considered to be one of the most infamous and murderous dictators of the 20th century.
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Profile: Vicente Saturnino
Vicente Saturnino (1920-2002)
Vicente Saturnino was born in Maracaibo, Venezuela on August 10, 1920. His father was an immigrant from the Canary Islands and his mother was the daughter of a family of Spanish, French and Bavarian origin. Growing up, Saturnino lived in a moderately wealthy middle class family and lived a very comfortable life in Maracaibo. In his youth, Saturnino was an avid admirer of Simon Bolivar and took an avid interest in the subjects of art, literature and history. In 1938, at the age of eighteen, Saturnino joined the infantry of the Venezuelan Army. He served as an infantry officer from 1942 to 1946. By 1948, he had attained the rank of major. In 1949, General Jacobo Chavarria, an old acquaintance of Saturnino, took over the government of Venezuela through a military coup. Some months later, President Chavarria, deeply suspicious of American intentions in the Western hemisphere and an admirer of the Armenta and Serrano regimes of Peru and Bolivia, declared that Venezuela would remain neutral in the Second Atacama War, yet allowed for the establishment of a volunteer brigade, the Bolivar Division, to be sent to fight in the Bolivian Army against the forces of the United States of America and their allies. Saturnino served in the division and in later years would remember fondly his time fighting alongside the Bolivians. After the surrender of Bolivian General Marino Sedillo (1898-1980) to the United States Army in December, 1949, the Bolivar Division returned home to Venezuela.
In 1950, in recognition of his service in Bolivia, Saturnino was promoted to the rank of colonel. After this, Saturnino began a long and lasting friendship with President Jacobo Chavarria, both of whom were staunch Venezuelan patriots. In 1955, Saturnino was promoted by his friend President Chavarria to the rank of general. In 1957, he was appointed ambassador to the Empire of Japan. During his time as Japanese ambassador, Saturnino gained a lot of interest in both Japanese culture and the corporatist government of Japan. In 1960, he returned home to Caracas, Venezuela. All in all, during these years, Saturnino was the de-facto deputy of and was close friends with President Chavarria.
On May 27, 1961, President Jacobo Chavarria died of cancer after almost twelve years in power. After a brief power struggle in the Venezuelan government, General Saturnino was installed as the new President of Venezuela. Saturnino also succeeded Chavarria as the leader of the corporatist Partido de Unidad Nacional Venezolana (PUNV) or the Venezuelan National Unity Party. Some months later, in August, 1961, an arms deal was negotiated between Venezuela and the Empire of Japan, both corporatist nations.
Throughout his eighteen years in power from 1961 to 1979, Saturnino would lead a brutal and ruthless regime, and he would prove to be even worse than his predecessor Chavarria. Just like under Chavarria, the economy of Venezuela was stringently regulated for the benefit of the state, all trade unions were state owned and Venezuela’s growing oil revenues were used to fund massive infrastructure projects and the expansion of the size, scope and power of the military, as well as the funding of public works projects, roads, airports, factories, schools, orphanages, numerous Roman Catholic institutions, among other things. Under Saturnino, things were even worse. Political dissidents were imprisoned, tortured and executed by the Policia Interna Venezolana. PIV death squads often abducted and murdered people in plainclothes in broad daylight. Average people were forced to work for hours out of their day by doing forced manual labor in the service of the state. Corruption was rampant, and wealth that was generated usually only went to government officials and their friends and family. Many prominent politicians were also involved in the trade of contraband, be it illegal weapons, drugs, among other things.
In 1973, President Saturnino refused to allow Venezuelan athletes to attend the XV Pan-American Games in Tampa and derided them as a “pathetic window-dressing for Yankee imperialism.” This was yet another display of Venezuela’s growing tensions with the United States of America and the League of American Republics. In September, 1976, soon after the start of the Asia-Pacific War (1976-1980), President Saturnino declared that he would increase oil production and ship it to the fellow corporatist nations of Japan and India at below market rates. In exchange, Saturnino was promised advanced jet and missile technology to upgrade the Venezuelan armed forces. The League of American Republics strongly condemned this move.
With the British Commonwealth seemingly losing the Asia-Pacific War by the beginning of 1977, President Saturnino decided that it was time to join the corporatist powers and settle the longstanding boundary dispute with the British in their colony of British Guyana. On February 3, 1977, Venezuelan troops crossed into British Guyana. Luckily for the British, intelligence delivered by a mole in the Venezuelan Navy had alerted them to the attack two days earlier. British Guyana fell to the Venezuelan invaders by February 7, 1977. Saturnino then decided to invade the British island of Trinidad in an effort to stop British Commonwealth aircraft from utilizing the island’s runways. On February 10, 1977, four regiments of Venezuelan paratroopers landed on the outskirts of the colonial capital of Port-of-Spain. After Venezuelan reinforcements stormed ashore later that day, the British forces on Trinidad surrendered to the Venezuelan invaders. Over the next two years, resistance in Guyana and Trinidad was brutally suppressed by the Venezuelan army. Civilian hostages were randomly abducted and killed. Guyanese and Trinidadian partisans were executed en masse. Entire villages suspected of harboring partisans and other rebels were completely destroyed by the Venezuelan army, with the villagers either all being killed or all being relocated to army-run internment camps. Outside of Venezuela, American and British Commonwealth propaganda often depicted Vicente Saturnino as “Saturnine Saturnino” and this caricature depicted him with an over-sized and balding forehead, oversized glasses, large jowls and a sour look on his face.
As the war dragged on into 1979, President Saturnino turned against perceived “domestic enemies” and arrested or executed an estimated 20,000 “subversives and undesirables” during the first half of the year alone. These included members of his government, members of the military, local government officials, business owners, intellectuals, civilians, among others. Later that year, in the twilight days of the Battle of Caracas, Saturnino fled south to the city of Calabozo and, much like the Bolivian dictator Celso Serrano thirty years previously, vowed to carry out a guerrilla war against the occupiers. Again, just like with Serrano thirty years previously, on November 27, 1979 the Venezuelan military decided to take matters into its own hands. President Saturnino was arrested after a brief firefight with his guards. Brigadier-General Jose Narvarte Orzua (1921-2005) was declared the head of a provisional government of Venezuela and immediately requested an armistice with the Allies. On November 29, 1979, despite some continued fighting with hardliners, thirty years of corporatism in Venezuela had finally come to an end.
Saturnino was imprisoned by the government of Venezuela for eleven years. In 1990, after suffering from a massive heart attack, Saturino was released from prison due to poor health and on the orders of the right-wing government of President Humberto Peralta (1923-2012). The only condition was that Saturnino leave Venezuela forever. Saturino then left the country and lived the rest of his life in exile in Palma de Majorca in the Kingdom of Spain, where he died alone and impoverished of heart failure on September 24, 2002. He was 82 years old. His family wanted his remains returned to Venezuela, but the center-left government of President Marco Suárez (1940- ) adamantly denied these wishes. As a result, his ashes were scattered over the Mediterranean Sea.
Vicente Saturnino was born in Maracaibo, Venezuela on August 10, 1920. His father was an immigrant from the Canary Islands and his mother was the daughter of a family of Spanish, French and Bavarian origin. Growing up, Saturnino lived in a moderately wealthy middle class family and lived a very comfortable life in Maracaibo. In his youth, Saturnino was an avid admirer of Simon Bolivar and took an avid interest in the subjects of art, literature and history. In 1938, at the age of eighteen, Saturnino joined the infantry of the Venezuelan Army. He served as an infantry officer from 1942 to 1946. By 1948, he had attained the rank of major. In 1949, General Jacobo Chavarria, an old acquaintance of Saturnino, took over the government of Venezuela through a military coup. Some months later, President Chavarria, deeply suspicious of American intentions in the Western hemisphere and an admirer of the Armenta and Serrano regimes of Peru and Bolivia, declared that Venezuela would remain neutral in the Second Atacama War, yet allowed for the establishment of a volunteer brigade, the Bolivar Division, to be sent to fight in the Bolivian Army against the forces of the United States of America and their allies. Saturnino served in the division and in later years would remember fondly his time fighting alongside the Bolivians. After the surrender of Bolivian General Marino Sedillo (1898-1980) to the United States Army in December, 1949, the Bolivar Division returned home to Venezuela.
In 1950, in recognition of his service in Bolivia, Saturnino was promoted to the rank of colonel. After this, Saturnino began a long and lasting friendship with President Jacobo Chavarria, both of whom were staunch Venezuelan patriots. In 1955, Saturnino was promoted by his friend President Chavarria to the rank of general. In 1957, he was appointed ambassador to the Empire of Japan. During his time as Japanese ambassador, Saturnino gained a lot of interest in both Japanese culture and the corporatist government of Japan. In 1960, he returned home to Caracas, Venezuela. All in all, during these years, Saturnino was the de-facto deputy of and was close friends with President Chavarria.
On May 27, 1961, President Jacobo Chavarria died of cancer after almost twelve years in power. After a brief power struggle in the Venezuelan government, General Saturnino was installed as the new President of Venezuela. Saturnino also succeeded Chavarria as the leader of the corporatist Partido de Unidad Nacional Venezolana (PUNV) or the Venezuelan National Unity Party. Some months later, in August, 1961, an arms deal was negotiated between Venezuela and the Empire of Japan, both corporatist nations.
Throughout his eighteen years in power from 1961 to 1979, Saturnino would lead a brutal and ruthless regime, and he would prove to be even worse than his predecessor Chavarria. Just like under Chavarria, the economy of Venezuela was stringently regulated for the benefit of the state, all trade unions were state owned and Venezuela’s growing oil revenues were used to fund massive infrastructure projects and the expansion of the size, scope and power of the military, as well as the funding of public works projects, roads, airports, factories, schools, orphanages, numerous Roman Catholic institutions, among other things. Under Saturnino, things were even worse. Political dissidents were imprisoned, tortured and executed by the Policia Interna Venezolana. PIV death squads often abducted and murdered people in plainclothes in broad daylight. Average people were forced to work for hours out of their day by doing forced manual labor in the service of the state. Corruption was rampant, and wealth that was generated usually only went to government officials and their friends and family. Many prominent politicians were also involved in the trade of contraband, be it illegal weapons, drugs, among other things.
In 1973, President Saturnino refused to allow Venezuelan athletes to attend the XV Pan-American Games in Tampa and derided them as a “pathetic window-dressing for Yankee imperialism.” This was yet another display of Venezuela’s growing tensions with the United States of America and the League of American Republics. In September, 1976, soon after the start of the Asia-Pacific War (1976-1980), President Saturnino declared that he would increase oil production and ship it to the fellow corporatist nations of Japan and India at below market rates. In exchange, Saturnino was promised advanced jet and missile technology to upgrade the Venezuelan armed forces. The League of American Republics strongly condemned this move.
With the British Commonwealth seemingly losing the Asia-Pacific War by the beginning of 1977, President Saturnino decided that it was time to join the corporatist powers and settle the longstanding boundary dispute with the British in their colony of British Guyana. On February 3, 1977, Venezuelan troops crossed into British Guyana. Luckily for the British, intelligence delivered by a mole in the Venezuelan Navy had alerted them to the attack two days earlier. British Guyana fell to the Venezuelan invaders by February 7, 1977. Saturnino then decided to invade the British island of Trinidad in an effort to stop British Commonwealth aircraft from utilizing the island’s runways. On February 10, 1977, four regiments of Venezuelan paratroopers landed on the outskirts of the colonial capital of Port-of-Spain. After Venezuelan reinforcements stormed ashore later that day, the British forces on Trinidad surrendered to the Venezuelan invaders. Over the next two years, resistance in Guyana and Trinidad was brutally suppressed by the Venezuelan army. Civilian hostages were randomly abducted and killed. Guyanese and Trinidadian partisans were executed en masse. Entire villages suspected of harboring partisans and other rebels were completely destroyed by the Venezuelan army, with the villagers either all being killed or all being relocated to army-run internment camps. Outside of Venezuela, American and British Commonwealth propaganda often depicted Vicente Saturnino as “Saturnine Saturnino” and this caricature depicted him with an over-sized and balding forehead, oversized glasses, large jowls and a sour look on his face.
As the war dragged on into 1979, President Saturnino turned against perceived “domestic enemies” and arrested or executed an estimated 20,000 “subversives and undesirables” during the first half of the year alone. These included members of his government, members of the military, local government officials, business owners, intellectuals, civilians, among others. Later that year, in the twilight days of the Battle of Caracas, Saturnino fled south to the city of Calabozo and, much like the Bolivian dictator Celso Serrano thirty years previously, vowed to carry out a guerrilla war against the occupiers. Again, just like with Serrano thirty years previously, on November 27, 1979 the Venezuelan military decided to take matters into its own hands. President Saturnino was arrested after a brief firefight with his guards. Brigadier-General Jose Narvarte Orzua (1921-2005) was declared the head of a provisional government of Venezuela and immediately requested an armistice with the Allies. On November 29, 1979, despite some continued fighting with hardliners, thirty years of corporatism in Venezuela had finally come to an end.
Saturnino was imprisoned by the government of Venezuela for eleven years. In 1990, after suffering from a massive heart attack, Saturino was released from prison due to poor health and on the orders of the right-wing government of President Humberto Peralta (1923-2012). The only condition was that Saturnino leave Venezuela forever. Saturino then left the country and lived the rest of his life in exile in Palma de Majorca in the Kingdom of Spain, where he died alone and impoverished of heart failure on September 24, 2002. He was 82 years old. His family wanted his remains returned to Venezuela, but the center-left government of President Marco Suárez (1940- ) adamantly denied these wishes. As a result, his ashes were scattered over the Mediterranean Sea.
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Good updates, Zoidberg!
Thanks guys! I plan on writing even more bios, so stay tuned.
Profile: Carlos VII
Carlos VII (1848-1908)
King Carlos VII of Spain was born as Don Carlos, Duke of Madrid on March 30, 1848 in the city of Laibach, now Ljubljana in the modern-day nation of Slovenia, then a part of the Austrian Empire. He was the oldest son of Juan, Count of Montizón (1822-1889) and of his wife Archduchess Maria Beatrix of Austria-Este (1824-1910). His uncle Infante Carlos, Count of Montemolin was the Carlist pretender to the Spanish throne. As an infant, he and his family lived briefly in London. After their parents separated, Carlos and his younger brother Alfonso, the future King Jaime III (1849-1934) moved with their mother to Modena. While in Modena, his maternal uncle Francis V, Duke of Modena (1819-1875) educated both him and his brother Alfonso. On August 4, 1867, Carlos, Duke of Madrid married Princess Margherita of Bourbon-Parma (1847-1890), the daughter of Duke Charles III of Parma (1823-1854) and Louise Marie Thérèse of France (1819-1864). In 1868, his father Juan, Count of Montizón abdicated as the pretender to the Carlist throne of Spain. As a result, Carlos, Duke of Madrid became the Carlist pretender to the Spanish throne under the name Carlos VII. Unlike his father, Carlos had outspoken traditionalist views.
On February 15, 1879, King Alfonso XII was forced to abdicate the Spanish throne by Prime Minister Manuel Pavía y Lacy, 1st Marquis de Novaliches (1814-1895), the head of the military junta in charge of Spain and the architect behind the abdication of Queen Isabella II in 1875. That same day, the Republic of Spain was established with Manuel Pavía y Lacy as interim President and Prime Minister. In March, 1879, President and Prime Minister Pavía announced that elections would be held in May to elect a new president. On May 10, 1879, the Spanish general election of 1879 was held. In these elections, the Radical Democratic Party led by Manuel Ruiz Zorrilla (1833-1901) won the election. As a result, Zorrilla became President of Spain. The election also resulted in government violence against Carlist candidates and much of the population turning away from Carlism. As a further result, the Carlist pretender Carlos, Duke of Madrid decided that the only way for him to gain the Spanish throne was to do so by force. On May 28, 1879, the Third Carlist War (1879-1882) broke out. A few months later, on October 10, 1879, the Spanish republican government, partly as a means to fund the war effort, sold the last remaining Spanish colonial possessions, the Philippines and the Spanish East Indies, to the Second French Empire for the equivalent of 25 million pesetas. This outraged many in Spain and the Carlists used this selling away of Spanish colonies by the Spanish republicans to great effect in their propaganda. This helped them gain a lot more support throughout Spain. During the war, Carlist forces managed to occupy several towns in the interior of Spain. In addition, Carlos attempted to gain the support of those in Spanish regions with more region-specific customs and traditional laws. In 1880, the Carlists proclaimed the restoration of the Catalan, Valencian and Aragonese fueros (charters) which were abolished in the 18th century. Once again, this gained the Carlists a lot of support throughout Spain. In 1881 and 1882, the cities of Bilbao, San Sebastián and Pamplona fell to Carlist forces. Finally, on July 18, 1882, as the Carlist armies were besieging Madrid, the republican government of Spain surrendered to the Carlist armies under Carlos, Duke of Madrid. As a result, the Republic of Spain was disbanded and the Kingdom of Spain was re-established under the Carlist branch of the Spanish House of Bourbon. Less than three months later, the coronation of King Carlos VII took place in Madrid on October 5, 1882. In 1883, his father Juan, Count of Montizón and the rest of his immediate family moved from Brighton, England to the El Escorial palace outside of Madrid.
The reign of Carlos VII saw a strengthening of ties between the Spanish government and the Roman Catholic Church, the reestablishment of the Catalan, Valencian and Aragonese charters and the establishment of Catalan, Valencian and Aragonese semi-autonomous provinces, the creation of Basque, Galician and Asturian charters and semi-autonomous provinces, the further industrialization of Spain, the gradual reformation of the Spanish military, the colonization of the Spanish Sahara, among other things. It should also be noted that the Carlist Kingdom of Spain was a deeply conservative and deeply Catholic monarchy. Aristocrats, large landowners, and the Catholic Church held a large amount of power in the government and in public life. In addition, blasphemy laws were enforced, divorce was illegal, having children out of wedlock was illegal (with the conceived children being sent to Catholic orphanages), traditional gender roles were almost unquestioned, trade unions were almost all outlawed, workers strikes were illegal, public gatherings of more than twenty were illegal and freedom of speech and the press were both heavily suppressed.
On June 20, 1889, Juan, Count of Montizón died of coronary artery disease in Madrid. As a result, King Carlos VII of Spain became the Legitimist claimant to the throne of France under the name Charles XI. Many individuals, both Legitimist politicians in France and numerous politicians in Spain, wanted to overthrow Napoleon IV and the Bonaparte dynasty and establish a personal-union between the Latin kingdoms of France and Spain, and in doing so establish a new and powerful dual monarchy and empire. Nevertheless, such a plan never came to pass, though it has become something of interest to numerous alternate history writers.
In 1907, the Great War broke out. At the start of the war, the Spanish government of King Carlos VII and Prime Minister Ernesto Gonzalez (1864-1941) favored the largely Catholic Entente, although some men in the government wanted Spain to join the Triple Alliance of Prussia, Russia and Italy in an effort to gain Basque and Catalan land in Metropolitan France and some French colonial territories in Africa. However, the sorry state of the Spanish military, despite some reformation, and the few foreseeable gains for entering the war made sure that Spain would be neutral. In July, 1908, King Carlos VII and Prime Minister Gonzalez proclaimed that the Kingdom of Spain would remain neutral in the Great War. Three months later, after a twenty-six year reign, King Carlos VII died of a heart attack in the El Escorial palace on October 16, 1908 at the age of sixty.
King Carlos VII of Spain was born as Don Carlos, Duke of Madrid on March 30, 1848 in the city of Laibach, now Ljubljana in the modern-day nation of Slovenia, then a part of the Austrian Empire. He was the oldest son of Juan, Count of Montizón (1822-1889) and of his wife Archduchess Maria Beatrix of Austria-Este (1824-1910). His uncle Infante Carlos, Count of Montemolin was the Carlist pretender to the Spanish throne. As an infant, he and his family lived briefly in London. After their parents separated, Carlos and his younger brother Alfonso, the future King Jaime III (1849-1934) moved with their mother to Modena. While in Modena, his maternal uncle Francis V, Duke of Modena (1819-1875) educated both him and his brother Alfonso. On August 4, 1867, Carlos, Duke of Madrid married Princess Margherita of Bourbon-Parma (1847-1890), the daughter of Duke Charles III of Parma (1823-1854) and Louise Marie Thérèse of France (1819-1864). In 1868, his father Juan, Count of Montizón abdicated as the pretender to the Carlist throne of Spain. As a result, Carlos, Duke of Madrid became the Carlist pretender to the Spanish throne under the name Carlos VII. Unlike his father, Carlos had outspoken traditionalist views.
On February 15, 1879, King Alfonso XII was forced to abdicate the Spanish throne by Prime Minister Manuel Pavía y Lacy, 1st Marquis de Novaliches (1814-1895), the head of the military junta in charge of Spain and the architect behind the abdication of Queen Isabella II in 1875. That same day, the Republic of Spain was established with Manuel Pavía y Lacy as interim President and Prime Minister. In March, 1879, President and Prime Minister Pavía announced that elections would be held in May to elect a new president. On May 10, 1879, the Spanish general election of 1879 was held. In these elections, the Radical Democratic Party led by Manuel Ruiz Zorrilla (1833-1901) won the election. As a result, Zorrilla became President of Spain. The election also resulted in government violence against Carlist candidates and much of the population turning away from Carlism. As a further result, the Carlist pretender Carlos, Duke of Madrid decided that the only way for him to gain the Spanish throne was to do so by force. On May 28, 1879, the Third Carlist War (1879-1882) broke out. A few months later, on October 10, 1879, the Spanish republican government, partly as a means to fund the war effort, sold the last remaining Spanish colonial possessions, the Philippines and the Spanish East Indies, to the Second French Empire for the equivalent of 25 million pesetas. This outraged many in Spain and the Carlists used this selling away of Spanish colonies by the Spanish republicans to great effect in their propaganda. This helped them gain a lot more support throughout Spain. During the war, Carlist forces managed to occupy several towns in the interior of Spain. In addition, Carlos attempted to gain the support of those in Spanish regions with more region-specific customs and traditional laws. In 1880, the Carlists proclaimed the restoration of the Catalan, Valencian and Aragonese fueros (charters) which were abolished in the 18th century. Once again, this gained the Carlists a lot of support throughout Spain. In 1881 and 1882, the cities of Bilbao, San Sebastián and Pamplona fell to Carlist forces. Finally, on July 18, 1882, as the Carlist armies were besieging Madrid, the republican government of Spain surrendered to the Carlist armies under Carlos, Duke of Madrid. As a result, the Republic of Spain was disbanded and the Kingdom of Spain was re-established under the Carlist branch of the Spanish House of Bourbon. Less than three months later, the coronation of King Carlos VII took place in Madrid on October 5, 1882. In 1883, his father Juan, Count of Montizón and the rest of his immediate family moved from Brighton, England to the El Escorial palace outside of Madrid.
The reign of Carlos VII saw a strengthening of ties between the Spanish government and the Roman Catholic Church, the reestablishment of the Catalan, Valencian and Aragonese charters and the establishment of Catalan, Valencian and Aragonese semi-autonomous provinces, the creation of Basque, Galician and Asturian charters and semi-autonomous provinces, the further industrialization of Spain, the gradual reformation of the Spanish military, the colonization of the Spanish Sahara, among other things. It should also be noted that the Carlist Kingdom of Spain was a deeply conservative and deeply Catholic monarchy. Aristocrats, large landowners, and the Catholic Church held a large amount of power in the government and in public life. In addition, blasphemy laws were enforced, divorce was illegal, having children out of wedlock was illegal (with the conceived children being sent to Catholic orphanages), traditional gender roles were almost unquestioned, trade unions were almost all outlawed, workers strikes were illegal, public gatherings of more than twenty were illegal and freedom of speech and the press were both heavily suppressed.
On June 20, 1889, Juan, Count of Montizón died of coronary artery disease in Madrid. As a result, King Carlos VII of Spain became the Legitimist claimant to the throne of France under the name Charles XI. Many individuals, both Legitimist politicians in France and numerous politicians in Spain, wanted to overthrow Napoleon IV and the Bonaparte dynasty and establish a personal-union between the Latin kingdoms of France and Spain, and in doing so establish a new and powerful dual monarchy and empire. Nevertheless, such a plan never came to pass, though it has become something of interest to numerous alternate history writers.
In 1907, the Great War broke out. At the start of the war, the Spanish government of King Carlos VII and Prime Minister Ernesto Gonzalez (1864-1941) favored the largely Catholic Entente, although some men in the government wanted Spain to join the Triple Alliance of Prussia, Russia and Italy in an effort to gain Basque and Catalan land in Metropolitan France and some French colonial territories in Africa. However, the sorry state of the Spanish military, despite some reformation, and the few foreseeable gains for entering the war made sure that Spain would be neutral. In July, 1908, King Carlos VII and Prime Minister Gonzalez proclaimed that the Kingdom of Spain would remain neutral in the Great War. Three months later, after a twenty-six year reign, King Carlos VII died of a heart attack in the El Escorial palace on October 16, 1908 at the age of sixty.
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Profile: Slamet Wahyu
Slamet Wahyu (1911-1992)
President Slamet Wahyu in 1972
President and Bapak Bangsa Slamet Wahyu in military uniform in 1990
Slamet Wahyu was born in Surabaya on the island of Java in the Dutch East Indies on February 15, 1911. A stubborn and often troublesome child, Wahyu was educated at a Dutch boarding school in rural Java from 1917 to 1929. After reaching adulthood, Wahyu served in the Dutch colonial army from 1929 to 1932. After his military service, Wahyu moved to the colonial capital of Batavia (modern-day Djakarta) to study to become a medical doctor. After four years of study, including sojourns in Amsterdam, Berlin, Paris, Tokyo and London, Wahyu finally gained his medical doctorate in 1937 at the age of 26. For the next decade, Wahyu settled down and established a moderately successful medical practice in Batavia. A practicing and devout Sunni Muslim throughout his life, Wahyu made his pilgrimage or hajj to Mecca in 1939.
Throughout the 1940s, the Indonesian independence movement had been growing in earnest. Numerous Indonesian nationalist and regionalist organizations and clubs had sprung up throughout the Dutch East Indies. Throughout the early 1940s, Dr. Wahyu started to become more and more aware of the pro-independence and nationalist organizations in the Dutch East Indies. On May 6, 1943, the day that Wahyu would later state was the day that changed his life forever, the 32-year old Dr. Slamet Wahyu attended a meeting of the Javanese People’s Union in Batavia and was almost instantly inspired by the idea of a free and unified Indonesian nation-state. Over the next few weeks, what he heard and saw at the aforementioned meeting continued to stay in his mind. By the summer of 1943, Dr. Wahyu convinced himself that he would now dedicate his life to the cause of a free and independent Indonesia. In July, 1943, he officially joined the Javanese People’s Union and began to write, edit and disseminate pro-independence and anti-colonial pamphlets, newspapers, books and other propaganda. Over the next few years and while still running his medical practice, Dr. Wahyu continued to do as such. In 1947 however, Dutch colonial authorities raided the headquarters of the Javanese People’s Union and arrested most of its members, Dr. Wahyu included. He then had his medical doctorate revoked and spent the next six years in jail from 1947 to 1953. After being released from prison, Wahyu moved to Tokyo in an effort to cultivate support for the cause of Indonesian independence amongst the corporatist and anti-Western colonialist government of Japan. Wahyu himself was very impressed with Japanese culture and the corporatist government of Japan. While not a corpratist, he sympathized with the efficiency and strength of the Japanese government and saw Japan as a liberator of Asian people from European colonialism and imperialism. Wahyu returned to Batavia in the Dutch East Indies in 1956. He then rejoined the Javanese Peoples Union and then moved to his old hometown of Surabaya, where he continued to remain politically active.
On March 27, 1960, Wahyu, among numerous other Indonesian nationalists, established the Indonesian Congress Party (ICP) in Batavia through the amalgamation of several pro-independence groups. In July, 1960, the Empire of Japan became the first foreign government to formally voice its support for the ICP. Under the charismatic Wahyu, the ICP would become the largest and best organized independence organization in the Dutch East Indies within only a year’s time. The swift and meteoric rise of the ICP worried many Dutch colonial officials that some kind of conflict in the Dutch East Indies was on the horizon.
On the afternoon of July 19, 1962, Dutch colonial soldiers opened fire on pro-independence demonstrators in Batavia, leaving twenty-two dead and over ninety wounded. Two days later, on July 21, 1962, Slamet Wahyu and his Indonesian Congress Party, capitalizing on public outrage over the Batavia massacre, issued a declaration of independence for the Republic of Indonesia. In response, Dutch King William IV (1901-1990) and Prime Minister Manfred Sevriens (1908-1997) quickly requested the deployment of additional troops from both the Dutch East Indies and the Metropolitan Netherlands to suppress the rebellion to which the States-General reluctantly consented. While other European colonial powers such as Germany, France, Italy, Spain and Portugal largely sided with the Dutch, with Germany even providing military advisors, the Corporatist Empire of Japan immediately recognized Wahyu’s government and began sending supplies and munitions to the ICP. Wahyu himself was still sympathetic to the Japanese government.
After six years of brutal jungle, urban and guerilla warfare, on September 12, 1968, the Dutch government decided to open negotiations with the Indonesian Congress Party. The two parties, including Wahyu, began meeting in the Swiss city of Geneva to negotiate an end to the war. While the ICP and their allied militias had made some gains on Java and Sumatra, disagreement over the fate of Indonesia’s eastern islands prohibited a settlement from being reached, as Wahyu would accept nothing less than a complete Dutch withdrawal from the islands of Indonesia. As such, negations and the war would drag on into the subsequent year, as both sides tried desperately to gain the upper hand. In the Netherlands, public opinion was turning against the war with an increasing amount of anti-war protests, despite an increase of aid from the German Empire. On June 29, 1969, news of the Lahat massacre, a massacre of no less than 724 civilians by Dutch soldiers that took place on June 12, 1969, forced the collapse of Prime Minister Manfred Sevriens’s government leading to the rise of a new ruling collation under the anti-imperialist Christian-Progressive Party under Sylvester Rietveld (1915-2006). After more than seven years of fighting, the war in the Dutch East Indies came to an abrupt end with the signing of the Treaty of Geneva on September 17, 1969. At the negotiations in Geneva it was agreed that the Netherlands would end its centuries of colonialism in the region and cede authority to an interim government following elections in December. The first Indonesian elections were held on December 16, 1969. As was to be expected, the Indonesian Congress Party (ICP) won the elections in a landslide. The next day, on December 17, 1969, the Netherlands officially recognized the independence of the Republic of Indonesia and Wahyu was proclaimed the interim President of Indonesia. With that, 366 years of Dutch colonial rule in Indonesia had come to an end. Just a few weeks later, Wahyu has hastily inaugurated as the first President of Indonesia on New Year’s Day, January 1, 1970.
Wahyu's presidency saw the increased industrialization and urbanization of Indonesia, a limited redistribution of wealth and land to the impoverished rural population, the establishment of new trade deals, the restoration of ancient Indonesian ruins and monuments, the establishment of new museums, a renaissance in Indonesian art, cinema and culture, the growth and reformation of the Indonesian military with help from Japanese, Indian, Persian, British and Australian military advisers, the funding of overseas nationalist and pro-independence movements in Malaya, British Borneo, Sri Lanka and Sub-Saharan Africa, among other things. Wahyu also successfully kept his country neutral in the Asia-Pacific War, and in doing so traded with both the Allied and Corpratists powers for the economic benefit of Indonesia. In 1985, he granted himself the title “Father of the Nation” (Bapak Bangsa), a title that no other Indonesian was and is ever allowed to hold.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, President Wahyu’s health began to seriously decline. At an Independence Day rally in 1989, President Wahyu collapsed on stage due to a heart attack and had to be taken to a nearby hospital. Throughout 1990 and 1991, Wahyu made less and less public appearances, much to the consternation of much of the Indonesian populace. Finally, after a long and eventful twenty-two year Presidency, Wahyu died of cardiac arrest on March 31, 1992 at the age of 81. A massive funeral was held just over two weeks later on April 15, 1992. He was then buried in a large, pre-built mausoleum in the heart of Djakarta.
As the founding father and first President of the Republic of Indonesia, Slamet Wahyu left a mixed legacy. Without a doubt, his leadership was pivotal for Indonesia in winning its independence from the Dutch Empire, among the other aforementioned accomplishments. On the other hand, Indonesia under his presidency was far from a perfect democracy, as elections were only held every ten years and Wahyu won in a landslide both the elections of 1979 and 1989. In addition, the Indonesian Congress Party consistently maintained a near complete control over Indonesian politics. The government also supported a number of Javanese-centric policies, which alienated many non-Javanese and emboldened numerous separatist and secessionist movements in Aceh, Bali, Borneo, and Papua, which is ironic considering Indonesian support for nationalist and pro-independence movements abroad. Corruption was also a problem within numerous levels of the government, including within the Indonesian Congress Party. Nevertheless, even to this day, Wahyu is still beloved by the Indonesian people as the father of their nation. His birthday, February 15, is a national holiday in Indonesia.
President Slamet Wahyu in 1972
President and Bapak Bangsa Slamet Wahyu in military uniform in 1990
Slamet Wahyu was born in Surabaya on the island of Java in the Dutch East Indies on February 15, 1911. A stubborn and often troublesome child, Wahyu was educated at a Dutch boarding school in rural Java from 1917 to 1929. After reaching adulthood, Wahyu served in the Dutch colonial army from 1929 to 1932. After his military service, Wahyu moved to the colonial capital of Batavia (modern-day Djakarta) to study to become a medical doctor. After four years of study, including sojourns in Amsterdam, Berlin, Paris, Tokyo and London, Wahyu finally gained his medical doctorate in 1937 at the age of 26. For the next decade, Wahyu settled down and established a moderately successful medical practice in Batavia. A practicing and devout Sunni Muslim throughout his life, Wahyu made his pilgrimage or hajj to Mecca in 1939.
Throughout the 1940s, the Indonesian independence movement had been growing in earnest. Numerous Indonesian nationalist and regionalist organizations and clubs had sprung up throughout the Dutch East Indies. Throughout the early 1940s, Dr. Wahyu started to become more and more aware of the pro-independence and nationalist organizations in the Dutch East Indies. On May 6, 1943, the day that Wahyu would later state was the day that changed his life forever, the 32-year old Dr. Slamet Wahyu attended a meeting of the Javanese People’s Union in Batavia and was almost instantly inspired by the idea of a free and unified Indonesian nation-state. Over the next few weeks, what he heard and saw at the aforementioned meeting continued to stay in his mind. By the summer of 1943, Dr. Wahyu convinced himself that he would now dedicate his life to the cause of a free and independent Indonesia. In July, 1943, he officially joined the Javanese People’s Union and began to write, edit and disseminate pro-independence and anti-colonial pamphlets, newspapers, books and other propaganda. Over the next few years and while still running his medical practice, Dr. Wahyu continued to do as such. In 1947 however, Dutch colonial authorities raided the headquarters of the Javanese People’s Union and arrested most of its members, Dr. Wahyu included. He then had his medical doctorate revoked and spent the next six years in jail from 1947 to 1953. After being released from prison, Wahyu moved to Tokyo in an effort to cultivate support for the cause of Indonesian independence amongst the corporatist and anti-Western colonialist government of Japan. Wahyu himself was very impressed with Japanese culture and the corporatist government of Japan. While not a corpratist, he sympathized with the efficiency and strength of the Japanese government and saw Japan as a liberator of Asian people from European colonialism and imperialism. Wahyu returned to Batavia in the Dutch East Indies in 1956. He then rejoined the Javanese Peoples Union and then moved to his old hometown of Surabaya, where he continued to remain politically active.
On March 27, 1960, Wahyu, among numerous other Indonesian nationalists, established the Indonesian Congress Party (ICP) in Batavia through the amalgamation of several pro-independence groups. In July, 1960, the Empire of Japan became the first foreign government to formally voice its support for the ICP. Under the charismatic Wahyu, the ICP would become the largest and best organized independence organization in the Dutch East Indies within only a year’s time. The swift and meteoric rise of the ICP worried many Dutch colonial officials that some kind of conflict in the Dutch East Indies was on the horizon.
On the afternoon of July 19, 1962, Dutch colonial soldiers opened fire on pro-independence demonstrators in Batavia, leaving twenty-two dead and over ninety wounded. Two days later, on July 21, 1962, Slamet Wahyu and his Indonesian Congress Party, capitalizing on public outrage over the Batavia massacre, issued a declaration of independence for the Republic of Indonesia. In response, Dutch King William IV (1901-1990) and Prime Minister Manfred Sevriens (1908-1997) quickly requested the deployment of additional troops from both the Dutch East Indies and the Metropolitan Netherlands to suppress the rebellion to which the States-General reluctantly consented. While other European colonial powers such as Germany, France, Italy, Spain and Portugal largely sided with the Dutch, with Germany even providing military advisors, the Corporatist Empire of Japan immediately recognized Wahyu’s government and began sending supplies and munitions to the ICP. Wahyu himself was still sympathetic to the Japanese government.
After six years of brutal jungle, urban and guerilla warfare, on September 12, 1968, the Dutch government decided to open negotiations with the Indonesian Congress Party. The two parties, including Wahyu, began meeting in the Swiss city of Geneva to negotiate an end to the war. While the ICP and their allied militias had made some gains on Java and Sumatra, disagreement over the fate of Indonesia’s eastern islands prohibited a settlement from being reached, as Wahyu would accept nothing less than a complete Dutch withdrawal from the islands of Indonesia. As such, negations and the war would drag on into the subsequent year, as both sides tried desperately to gain the upper hand. In the Netherlands, public opinion was turning against the war with an increasing amount of anti-war protests, despite an increase of aid from the German Empire. On June 29, 1969, news of the Lahat massacre, a massacre of no less than 724 civilians by Dutch soldiers that took place on June 12, 1969, forced the collapse of Prime Minister Manfred Sevriens’s government leading to the rise of a new ruling collation under the anti-imperialist Christian-Progressive Party under Sylvester Rietveld (1915-2006). After more than seven years of fighting, the war in the Dutch East Indies came to an abrupt end with the signing of the Treaty of Geneva on September 17, 1969. At the negotiations in Geneva it was agreed that the Netherlands would end its centuries of colonialism in the region and cede authority to an interim government following elections in December. The first Indonesian elections were held on December 16, 1969. As was to be expected, the Indonesian Congress Party (ICP) won the elections in a landslide. The next day, on December 17, 1969, the Netherlands officially recognized the independence of the Republic of Indonesia and Wahyu was proclaimed the interim President of Indonesia. With that, 366 years of Dutch colonial rule in Indonesia had come to an end. Just a few weeks later, Wahyu has hastily inaugurated as the first President of Indonesia on New Year’s Day, January 1, 1970.
Wahyu's presidency saw the increased industrialization and urbanization of Indonesia, a limited redistribution of wealth and land to the impoverished rural population, the establishment of new trade deals, the restoration of ancient Indonesian ruins and monuments, the establishment of new museums, a renaissance in Indonesian art, cinema and culture, the growth and reformation of the Indonesian military with help from Japanese, Indian, Persian, British and Australian military advisers, the funding of overseas nationalist and pro-independence movements in Malaya, British Borneo, Sri Lanka and Sub-Saharan Africa, among other things. Wahyu also successfully kept his country neutral in the Asia-Pacific War, and in doing so traded with both the Allied and Corpratists powers for the economic benefit of Indonesia. In 1985, he granted himself the title “Father of the Nation” (Bapak Bangsa), a title that no other Indonesian was and is ever allowed to hold.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, President Wahyu’s health began to seriously decline. At an Independence Day rally in 1989, President Wahyu collapsed on stage due to a heart attack and had to be taken to a nearby hospital. Throughout 1990 and 1991, Wahyu made less and less public appearances, much to the consternation of much of the Indonesian populace. Finally, after a long and eventful twenty-two year Presidency, Wahyu died of cardiac arrest on March 31, 1992 at the age of 81. A massive funeral was held just over two weeks later on April 15, 1992. He was then buried in a large, pre-built mausoleum in the heart of Djakarta.
As the founding father and first President of the Republic of Indonesia, Slamet Wahyu left a mixed legacy. Without a doubt, his leadership was pivotal for Indonesia in winning its independence from the Dutch Empire, among the other aforementioned accomplishments. On the other hand, Indonesia under his presidency was far from a perfect democracy, as elections were only held every ten years and Wahyu won in a landslide both the elections of 1979 and 1989. In addition, the Indonesian Congress Party consistently maintained a near complete control over Indonesian politics. The government also supported a number of Javanese-centric policies, which alienated many non-Javanese and emboldened numerous separatist and secessionist movements in Aceh, Bali, Borneo, and Papua, which is ironic considering Indonesian support for nationalist and pro-independence movements abroad. Corruption was also a problem within numerous levels of the government, including within the Indonesian Congress Party. Nevertheless, even to this day, Wahyu is still beloved by the Indonesian people as the father of their nation. His birthday, February 15, is a national holiday in Indonesia.
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Good updates, Zoidberg!
IIRC, Prim's party was a monarchist party.
I think it should be Policia Interna Venezolana.
Thanks!
Also, thanks for pointing that out. Any good alternatives as to who could oust King Alfonso from power?
Thanks for pointing that out. I'll fix it.
According to Mac Gregor himself, anyone can write bios. I myself would love to see what you or anyone else could write up.
As for your second question;
Sidney Hoskins is Stanley Argyle, Premier of Victoria from 1932 to 1935.
Elbio Paz Armenta is Peruvian President Manuel A. Odría.
Celso Serrano is Bolivian President Gualberto Villarroel.
Vicente Saturnino is Venezuelan President Marcos Perez Jimenez.
Slamet Walhyu is Indonesian general Abdul Haris Nasution.
Profile: Carlos I
Carlos I (1863-1916)
Carlos I was born on October 15, 1863 in the Palace of Ajuda in Lisbon, Portugal. His father was King Luis I of Portugal (1838-1890) and his mother was Queen Maria Pia of Savoy (1847-1914), the daughter of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy (1820-1885) who through her was his grandfather. Throughout his formative years and his teenage years, the young Carlos, Prince Royal had been given an intense and rigorous education. Throughout the late 1870s and early 1880s, he traveled to Spain, France, Great Britain, Italy, Germany and Austria-Hungary. At different times in 1884, 1885 and 1887 he served as regent of Portugal while his father King Luis I was travelling throughout Europe. Throughout these years, he was preparing to rule the Kingdom of Portugal as a constitutional monarch like Queen Victoria and not an autocrat like Napoleon IV or his Iberian counterpart Carlos VII. In 1888, he married Princess Charlotte of Prussia (1860-1925), who converted to Roman Catholicism in order to make the marriage amicable for all parties involved. He had two children, Miguel, Prince Royal (1889-1903) and Infante Francisco Jose (1892-1893), the latter of whom died infancy. After the death of his father King Luis I on December 11, 1890, Carlos, Prince Royal was crowned King Carlos I of Portugal.
In 1891, a series of colonial treaties were signed with the United Kingdom and the Second French Empire. These treaties established the borders between the Portuguese and British colonies and the Portuguese and French colonies in Sub-Saharan Africa. On March 4, 1894, the 500th anniversary of the birthday of Prince Henry the Navigator was celebrated throughout the major Portuguese cities. However, Carlos’ reign was not all perfect. On July 17, 1896, the Portuguese government declared bankruptcy and as a result industrial disturbances, workers strikes, and riots by radical socialists and republicans occurred all across Portugal throughout the subsequent months. Beginning in August, 1896, radical socialist and republican rioters were forcefully repressed by government soldiers, with many being killed and arrested. Numerous radical socialist and republican groups that advocated for revolution against the monarchy were also outlawed. In February, 1897, a law was passed by the Portuguese government that illegalized all trade unions that were not state-owned or that would submit to being state-owned. The government was severely criticized in the press for these actions, but still allowed for freedom of the press. The economy of Portugal continued to remain in a recession throughout 1897 and into 1898, until the economy gradually recovered with the help of loans from British, Spanish and French banking firms. By the new century, economic prosperity had mostly returned to Portugal. However, the aforementioned recession led to an increase in Portuguese emigration overseas, be it to the United States of America, Brazil, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, Mexico, Chile, Colombia, among other places. The aforementioned recession also led to an increase in Portuguese emigration to the overseas colonies, particularly Angola and Moçambique.
Prior to and throughout his reign, King Carlos I was an avid and enthusiastic patron of the arts. The King was even a painter himself, and most of his surviving paintings are showcased in the Palace of Ajuda and numerous art museums in Portugal. In 1900, he personally attended the funeral of the great Portuguese poet João de Deus (1830-1900). King Carlos I was also an avid outdoors-man and a lover of nature. He was a sporadic hunter and he took a great interesting in camping, gardening, marine biology and maritime exploration. In 1897, he became the first king of Portugal to visit the African colonies and to go on a safari and African hunting trip.
In 1907, the Great War broke out. Throughout the war, King Carlos I and his governments followed the lead of their historic ally of Great Britain and maintained pro-Triple Alliance neutrality. There were simply no territorial or economic benefits to joining either alliance. After Great Britain entered the war on the side of the Allies in 1909, some men in the government wanted Portugal to join the Allies, but the Portuguese government was trading with both sides and did not want to break their economic ties with the Entente.
In April, 1916, King Carlos I returned to Portuguese West Africa/Portuguese Angola. Throughout that month, Carlos went on quite a few safaris. However, towards the beginning of May, Carlos became seriously ill. Some weeks later, Carlos I died of malaria in his hotel room in Luanda at the age of 52 on May 16, 1916. His only son who did not die in infancy, Miguel, Prince Royal, died of tuberculosis in 1903 at the age of fourteen. As a result, his younger brother, Infante Luis, Duke of Porto succeeded him as King of Portugal as King Luis II (1866-1919). However, the new king Luis II did not have any children. This led to the Portuguese succession crisis of 1916. In October, 1916, the crisis was finally resolved. The Portuguese government of Prime Minister Boaventura Nunes (1869-1960) stated that if Luis II could not produce an heir before his death the Portuguese throne would pass to the Miguelist claimant to the Portuguese throne Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, who was the eldest son of the late Miguel, Duke of Braganza (1853-1913). Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu was the future King Ferdinand III of Portugal (1882-1949).
Carlos I was born on October 15, 1863 in the Palace of Ajuda in Lisbon, Portugal. His father was King Luis I of Portugal (1838-1890) and his mother was Queen Maria Pia of Savoy (1847-1914), the daughter of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy (1820-1885) who through her was his grandfather. Throughout his formative years and his teenage years, the young Carlos, Prince Royal had been given an intense and rigorous education. Throughout the late 1870s and early 1880s, he traveled to Spain, France, Great Britain, Italy, Germany and Austria-Hungary. At different times in 1884, 1885 and 1887 he served as regent of Portugal while his father King Luis I was travelling throughout Europe. Throughout these years, he was preparing to rule the Kingdom of Portugal as a constitutional monarch like Queen Victoria and not an autocrat like Napoleon IV or his Iberian counterpart Carlos VII. In 1888, he married Princess Charlotte of Prussia (1860-1925), who converted to Roman Catholicism in order to make the marriage amicable for all parties involved. He had two children, Miguel, Prince Royal (1889-1903) and Infante Francisco Jose (1892-1893), the latter of whom died infancy. After the death of his father King Luis I on December 11, 1890, Carlos, Prince Royal was crowned King Carlos I of Portugal.
In 1891, a series of colonial treaties were signed with the United Kingdom and the Second French Empire. These treaties established the borders between the Portuguese and British colonies and the Portuguese and French colonies in Sub-Saharan Africa. On March 4, 1894, the 500th anniversary of the birthday of Prince Henry the Navigator was celebrated throughout the major Portuguese cities. However, Carlos’ reign was not all perfect. On July 17, 1896, the Portuguese government declared bankruptcy and as a result industrial disturbances, workers strikes, and riots by radical socialists and republicans occurred all across Portugal throughout the subsequent months. Beginning in August, 1896, radical socialist and republican rioters were forcefully repressed by government soldiers, with many being killed and arrested. Numerous radical socialist and republican groups that advocated for revolution against the monarchy were also outlawed. In February, 1897, a law was passed by the Portuguese government that illegalized all trade unions that were not state-owned or that would submit to being state-owned. The government was severely criticized in the press for these actions, but still allowed for freedom of the press. The economy of Portugal continued to remain in a recession throughout 1897 and into 1898, until the economy gradually recovered with the help of loans from British, Spanish and French banking firms. By the new century, economic prosperity had mostly returned to Portugal. However, the aforementioned recession led to an increase in Portuguese emigration overseas, be it to the United States of America, Brazil, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, Mexico, Chile, Colombia, among other places. The aforementioned recession also led to an increase in Portuguese emigration to the overseas colonies, particularly Angola and Moçambique.
Prior to and throughout his reign, King Carlos I was an avid and enthusiastic patron of the arts. The King was even a painter himself, and most of his surviving paintings are showcased in the Palace of Ajuda and numerous art museums in Portugal. In 1900, he personally attended the funeral of the great Portuguese poet João de Deus (1830-1900). King Carlos I was also an avid outdoors-man and a lover of nature. He was a sporadic hunter and he took a great interesting in camping, gardening, marine biology and maritime exploration. In 1897, he became the first king of Portugal to visit the African colonies and to go on a safari and African hunting trip.
In 1907, the Great War broke out. Throughout the war, King Carlos I and his governments followed the lead of their historic ally of Great Britain and maintained pro-Triple Alliance neutrality. There were simply no territorial or economic benefits to joining either alliance. After Great Britain entered the war on the side of the Allies in 1909, some men in the government wanted Portugal to join the Allies, but the Portuguese government was trading with both sides and did not want to break their economic ties with the Entente.
In April, 1916, King Carlos I returned to Portuguese West Africa/Portuguese Angola. Throughout that month, Carlos went on quite a few safaris. However, towards the beginning of May, Carlos became seriously ill. Some weeks later, Carlos I died of malaria in his hotel room in Luanda at the age of 52 on May 16, 1916. His only son who did not die in infancy, Miguel, Prince Royal, died of tuberculosis in 1903 at the age of fourteen. As a result, his younger brother, Infante Luis, Duke of Porto succeeded him as King of Portugal as King Luis II (1866-1919). However, the new king Luis II did not have any children. This led to the Portuguese succession crisis of 1916. In October, 1916, the crisis was finally resolved. The Portuguese government of Prime Minister Boaventura Nunes (1869-1960) stated that if Luis II could not produce an heir before his death the Portuguese throne would pass to the Miguelist claimant to the Portuguese throne Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, who was the eldest son of the late Miguel, Duke of Braganza (1853-1913). Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu was the future King Ferdinand III of Portugal (1882-1949).
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Profile: Hussein ibn Ali
Hussein ibn Ali (1853 or 1854 - 1931)
Hussein ibn Ali was born to Ali ibn Muhammad, sharif of Mecca in Constantinople in 1853 or 1854. He belonged to old Hashemite house and was descendant of Prophet Muhammad. Hashemites were rulers of Mecca since early 13th century and vassals of Ottomans since 16th century. Most of his childhood Hussein anyway lived in Mecca. Already on young age he educated with Islamic doctrines and Sharia law. On young age he too became familiar with politics and learned about nature of desert and lifestyle of nomadic people. In 1873 Hussein's father Ali ibn Muhammad died and two years later Hussein ibn Ali was named as pasha on Ottoman army. In 1901 him became sharif and emir of Mecca.
Just some years before break out of the Great War Turkish nationalism was rising in Ottoman Empire and Hussein ibn Ali became bit suspicious about intentions of Ottomans. But his oldest son Hassan ibn Hussein (1877 - 1948) advised him that him should wait right moment and then begin search support of other Arab tribes. When Ottomans joined to the Great War in 1907, Hussein sent his son Hassan search Arab allies. He too sent emissaries to Berlin and London asking aid. In 1908 Hussein ibn Ali was able to rise rebel flag and it was pretty succesful. Arabs too got important help from Prussian and British officers captain Theophil Schoenfeld (1872 - 1944) and major Kian Hawkins (1870 - 1960). By Spring of 1910 all Ottoman forces were expelled from Hejaz. Later on same year Hussein declared himself as sultan of Arabia despite that he hadn't yet got whole the peninsula under his control. When Ottomans surrended, he too declared himself as caliph, stating that him has bigger justification for the title than Ottomans, who even weren't any relationship with Prophet Muhammad.
Despite that Hussein ibn Ali would had wanted unite all Arabs under Ottomans as one kingdom, it failed. Brits and Russians were able to capture Mesopotamia, but Brits failed with Levantine so whole idea about united Arab kingdom wasn't realistic. And even Brits and Germans didn't support that. But Brits allowed Hussein to take most of Arabian Peninsula and agreed that Hussein's second son Aqil will becomes king of Mesopotamia. And Hussein too got much of western military equipments and other stuff which would help modernise his kingdom so Hussein acceded to sign Treaty of Brussels.
But sultan of Arabia and caliph of Islam had one big problem to deal. Sauds and ultra-conservative Wahhabites caused gigantic headache for Hashemites. Sauds were already fought against Ottomans since 18th century and now they turned their sight toward Hejaz. Fortunately Hashemites had much of western support and weapons. Them had too several British and German military advisors. War against Sultanate of Nejd under Sauds was long and brutal but finally in 1919 Hashemite forces led by Hassan ibn Hussein captured Riyadh, capital of Nejd and caused much of damage for the city. Last emir of Nejd and some of his sons and other male Saudis were beheaded. This effectively ended power of Sauds. Wahhabites were too dismantled altough there was still enough of Wahhabites to cause problems for Hashemites on coming decades.
During his reign Arabia begun to develope modern nation altough it remained in many arya pretty backward and all power was still on hands of sultan. Several new roads were built and electric usage increased. In 1924 railroad construction was finished between Jeddah and Dammam which connected Red Sea and Gulf of Persia. Ties with European nations increased too, speciality with Germany.
Hussein ibn Ali died in his palace in Jeddah on 1931. To his funeral attended several ambassadors from many European Mid-Eastern nations. Prior of his death Arabia had changed greatly from that what it was only couple decades ago. The country was modernised and developed greatly but it was still partially backward and there was still much of poverty. There was still big contrast between quiet developed west coast and rest of Arabia.
Hussein ibn Ali was born to Ali ibn Muhammad, sharif of Mecca in Constantinople in 1853 or 1854. He belonged to old Hashemite house and was descendant of Prophet Muhammad. Hashemites were rulers of Mecca since early 13th century and vassals of Ottomans since 16th century. Most of his childhood Hussein anyway lived in Mecca. Already on young age he educated with Islamic doctrines and Sharia law. On young age he too became familiar with politics and learned about nature of desert and lifestyle of nomadic people. In 1873 Hussein's father Ali ibn Muhammad died and two years later Hussein ibn Ali was named as pasha on Ottoman army. In 1901 him became sharif and emir of Mecca.
Just some years before break out of the Great War Turkish nationalism was rising in Ottoman Empire and Hussein ibn Ali became bit suspicious about intentions of Ottomans. But his oldest son Hassan ibn Hussein (1877 - 1948) advised him that him should wait right moment and then begin search support of other Arab tribes. When Ottomans joined to the Great War in 1907, Hussein sent his son Hassan search Arab allies. He too sent emissaries to Berlin and London asking aid. In 1908 Hussein ibn Ali was able to rise rebel flag and it was pretty succesful. Arabs too got important help from Prussian and British officers captain Theophil Schoenfeld (1872 - 1944) and major Kian Hawkins (1870 - 1960). By Spring of 1910 all Ottoman forces were expelled from Hejaz. Later on same year Hussein declared himself as sultan of Arabia despite that he hadn't yet got whole the peninsula under his control. When Ottomans surrended, he too declared himself as caliph, stating that him has bigger justification for the title than Ottomans, who even weren't any relationship with Prophet Muhammad.
Despite that Hussein ibn Ali would had wanted unite all Arabs under Ottomans as one kingdom, it failed. Brits and Russians were able to capture Mesopotamia, but Brits failed with Levantine so whole idea about united Arab kingdom wasn't realistic. And even Brits and Germans didn't support that. But Brits allowed Hussein to take most of Arabian Peninsula and agreed that Hussein's second son Aqil will becomes king of Mesopotamia. And Hussein too got much of western military equipments and other stuff which would help modernise his kingdom so Hussein acceded to sign Treaty of Brussels.
But sultan of Arabia and caliph of Islam had one big problem to deal. Sauds and ultra-conservative Wahhabites caused gigantic headache for Hashemites. Sauds were already fought against Ottomans since 18th century and now they turned their sight toward Hejaz. Fortunately Hashemites had much of western support and weapons. Them had too several British and German military advisors. War against Sultanate of Nejd under Sauds was long and brutal but finally in 1919 Hashemite forces led by Hassan ibn Hussein captured Riyadh, capital of Nejd and caused much of damage for the city. Last emir of Nejd and some of his sons and other male Saudis were beheaded. This effectively ended power of Sauds. Wahhabites were too dismantled altough there was still enough of Wahhabites to cause problems for Hashemites on coming decades.
During his reign Arabia begun to develope modern nation altough it remained in many arya pretty backward and all power was still on hands of sultan. Several new roads were built and electric usage increased. In 1924 railroad construction was finished between Jeddah and Dammam which connected Red Sea and Gulf of Persia. Ties with European nations increased too, speciality with Germany.
Hussein ibn Ali died in his palace in Jeddah on 1931. To his funeral attended several ambassadors from many European Mid-Eastern nations. Prior of his death Arabia had changed greatly from that what it was only couple decades ago. The country was modernised and developed greatly but it was still partially backward and there was still much of poverty. There was still big contrast between quiet developed west coast and rest of Arabia.
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Profile: Hassan ibn Hussein
Hassan ibn Hussein (1877 - 1948)
Hassan ibn Hussein was first son of future sultan of Arabia, Hussein ibn Ali. He was intrested about Western things when he was teenager. He read much of western culture and several books of European military commanders from Julius Caesar to Giuseppe Garibaldi. Hassan too became familiar with nationalism. He entered to politics of Ottoman Empire at young age and was elected on 1901 to Ottoman parliament. But he anyway remained suspicious with democracy rest of his life. It is anyway unclear got he spark to revolt against Ottomans in Constantinople or somewhere else.
On beginning of the Great War he left Constantinople and returned to Mecca as advisor of his father. Him had vital role on Arab Revolt. He was good negotiator and was able to create great alliance with other tribes. He too created close relationships with Brits and speciality with Germans. Him became lifetime friend of Theophil Schoenfeld and Kian Hawkins who gave markable aid to Arab rebels. In 1910 Hussein ibn Ali declared himself as sultan of Arabia and caliph of Islam and Hassan became heir of his father.
As crown prince Hassan ibn Hussein led war against Sultanate of Nejd. After nine years lasted war he captured Riyadh, capital of Nejd and defeated Sauds, which weakened Wahhabites but they remained still long time as serious problem. In 1920 him became governor of new-founded province of Al-Kharj (roughly OTL Province of Riyadh). As governor he continued to put down several Wahhabite groups. In 1926 him became foreign minister. As foreign minister he created closer relationships with United Kingdom and Germany.
In 1931 sultan Hussein ibn Ali died and so Hassan ibn Hussein became sultan and caliph. His reign didn't begin easily. Firstly Yemeni tribes, which are mostly Shias, begun revolt when they expected that power transition wouldn't be very smooth. In 1932 there was attentant against sultan's life by Wahhabite group and sultan was injured. He anyway survived from attack but never recovered fully. Him had deal with Yemeni and Wahhabite revolts several years. In 1934 in province of Al-Dammam was found oil and this got much of attention. Hassan was anyway able to negotiate pretty good treaties about using of oil reserves and sharing oil revenues with British, German and American oil companies. This helped boost economy of Arabia. On end of 1930's and early 1940's he supported Syrian rebels on Ottoman Civil War. He hoped that he could put Hashemite monarch to Syria but Syrians were deeply republicans so it didn't work. But Arabia anyway created good relationships with Republic of Greater Syria. On early 1940's him had to help his brother and king of Mesopotamia Aqil I put down Shia revolt in Southern Mesopotamia. The sultan died on 1948 from lymphoma in Jeddah.
Hassan ibn Hussein was first son of future sultan of Arabia, Hussein ibn Ali. He was intrested about Western things when he was teenager. He read much of western culture and several books of European military commanders from Julius Caesar to Giuseppe Garibaldi. Hassan too became familiar with nationalism. He entered to politics of Ottoman Empire at young age and was elected on 1901 to Ottoman parliament. But he anyway remained suspicious with democracy rest of his life. It is anyway unclear got he spark to revolt against Ottomans in Constantinople or somewhere else.
On beginning of the Great War he left Constantinople and returned to Mecca as advisor of his father. Him had vital role on Arab Revolt. He was good negotiator and was able to create great alliance with other tribes. He too created close relationships with Brits and speciality with Germans. Him became lifetime friend of Theophil Schoenfeld and Kian Hawkins who gave markable aid to Arab rebels. In 1910 Hussein ibn Ali declared himself as sultan of Arabia and caliph of Islam and Hassan became heir of his father.
As crown prince Hassan ibn Hussein led war against Sultanate of Nejd. After nine years lasted war he captured Riyadh, capital of Nejd and defeated Sauds, which weakened Wahhabites but they remained still long time as serious problem. In 1920 him became governor of new-founded province of Al-Kharj (roughly OTL Province of Riyadh). As governor he continued to put down several Wahhabite groups. In 1926 him became foreign minister. As foreign minister he created closer relationships with United Kingdom and Germany.
In 1931 sultan Hussein ibn Ali died and so Hassan ibn Hussein became sultan and caliph. His reign didn't begin easily. Firstly Yemeni tribes, which are mostly Shias, begun revolt when they expected that power transition wouldn't be very smooth. In 1932 there was attentant against sultan's life by Wahhabite group and sultan was injured. He anyway survived from attack but never recovered fully. Him had deal with Yemeni and Wahhabite revolts several years. In 1934 in province of Al-Dammam was found oil and this got much of attention. Hassan was anyway able to negotiate pretty good treaties about using of oil reserves and sharing oil revenues with British, German and American oil companies. This helped boost economy of Arabia. On end of 1930's and early 1940's he supported Syrian rebels on Ottoman Civil War. He hoped that he could put Hashemite monarch to Syria but Syrians were deeply republicans so it didn't work. But Arabia anyway created good relationships with Republic of Greater Syria. On early 1940's him had to help his brother and king of Mesopotamia Aqil I put down Shia revolt in Southern Mesopotamia. The sultan died on 1948 from lymphoma in Jeddah.
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Albert I of Belgium
Alfred Dreyfus
Alfred von Tirpitz
Arthur Conan Doyle
Benjamin Harrison
Booker T. Washington and Robert Ford
Carlos I of Portugal
Carlos VII
Carlos Manuel de Cespedes del Castillo
Celso Serrano
Charles George Gordon
Edwin Anderson
Elbio Paz Armenta
Emmett Scott Drager
Emperor Norton I
Friedrich IV of Germany
Friedrich Nietzche
Gabriel Hanotaux
George V of United Kingdom
George Armstrong Custer and Josefina Guzman
Geronimo
Grover Cleveland, Giovanni Giolitti, and John J. Pershing
Harshad Nanda
Hassan ibn Hussein
Heng Jiang
Henry Morgenthau Sr.
Hussein ibn Ali
John Sedgwick and Samantha Greenburg
Jonathan Bedford
Jonathan Wamsley
Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain
Jurcek Krulik
Kendrick Arneson
Kings of Mesopotamia
L. Frank Baum and Michaela Harris
Leonardo Márquez
Leopold III of Belgium
Louis Brandeis
Lucia I
Luis II
Maximo Gómez
Nicholas II of Russia
Nikola Tesla
Otto von Bismarck and John Wilkes Booth
Paul von Hindenburg and Samuel Tilden
Porfirio Díaz
Robert Gould Shaw
Robert Lincoln Wilcox
Robi Vencel Ignacz
Rutherford B. Hayes and Sitting Bull
Sarah Caron
Sean O'Grady
Sidney Hoskins
Slamet Wahyu
Two First Kings of Modern Day Norway
Vicente Saturnino
Victor I of United Kingdom
Wilhelm II of Germany
William Howard Taft
William Jennings Bryan
William McKinley
William S. Lincoln
Woodrow Wilson
Alfred Dreyfus
Alfred von Tirpitz
Arthur Conan Doyle
Benjamin Harrison
Booker T. Washington and Robert Ford
Carlos I of Portugal
Carlos VII
Carlos Manuel de Cespedes del Castillo
Celso Serrano
Charles George Gordon
Edwin Anderson
Elbio Paz Armenta
Emmett Scott Drager
Emperor Norton I
Friedrich IV of Germany
Friedrich Nietzche
Gabriel Hanotaux
George V of United Kingdom
George Armstrong Custer and Josefina Guzman
Geronimo
Grover Cleveland, Giovanni Giolitti, and John J. Pershing
Harshad Nanda
Hassan ibn Hussein
Heng Jiang
Henry Morgenthau Sr.
Hussein ibn Ali
John Sedgwick and Samantha Greenburg
Jonathan Bedford
Jonathan Wamsley
Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain
Jurcek Krulik
Kendrick Arneson
Kings of Mesopotamia
L. Frank Baum and Michaela Harris
Leonardo Márquez
Leopold III of Belgium
Louis Brandeis
Lucia I
Luis II
Maximo Gómez
Nicholas II of Russia
Nikola Tesla
Otto von Bismarck and John Wilkes Booth
Paul von Hindenburg and Samuel Tilden
Porfirio Díaz
Robert Gould Shaw
Robert Lincoln Wilcox
Robi Vencel Ignacz
Rutherford B. Hayes and Sitting Bull
Sarah Caron
Sean O'Grady
Sidney Hoskins
Slamet Wahyu
Two First Kings of Modern Day Norway
Vicente Saturnino
Victor I of United Kingdom
Wilhelm II of Germany
William Howard Taft
William Jennings Bryan
William McKinley
William S. Lincoln
Woodrow Wilson
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Maybe one of these guys:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_Ruiz_Zorrilla
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesc_Pi_i_Margall
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolás_Salmerón_y_Alonso
I suggest you change it to anarchists and republicans. The socialists, at least historically, were a very moderate and pro-parliamentarist party.
I think you meant Wahhabites.
Profile: Lucia I
Lucia I (1870-1950)
Lucia I was born as Princess Lucia in Rome, Italy on April 24, 1870. He father was Prince Umberto, the future King Umberto I of Italy (1844-1908) and her mother was Princess Mathilde of Austria, the future Queen Mathilde of Italy (1849-1922). She was the only child of King Umberto II of Italy. Growing up, Princess Lucia was educated throughout Italy by a number of private governesses, and she was brought up to admire and to learn about and study Italian culture and history. She also learned the languages of Latin, Greek, French, Spanish, German and English. Her first major public appearance was at the funeral of her grandfather King Victor Emmanuel II in Rome on September 29, 1885. Throughout her life, Lucia was a devout Roman Catholic. During her time as a princess, beginning in the early 1890s, she saw to the establishment of numerous Roman Catholic orphanages and charities, mostly in the impoverished rural regions of southern Italy, and these institutions helped to alleviate poverty for many average Italians. She also wanted to see a solution to the Pope being “a prisoner in the Vatican”, but such a solution never came to pass during her future reign. On June 29, 1895, she married Archduke Rudolf Ludwig (1868-1929) a son of Archduke Karl Ludwig of Austria (1833-1894) and the nephew of Emperor Maximillian I of Austria-Hungary (1832-1922). As a result, Archduke Rudolf Ludwig became Prince Rodolfo Luigi of Italy. He was also the future Prince Consort Rodolfo Luigi of Italy. The couple was always happily married and never had any children. In 1898, the Italian government of Prime Minister Giuseppe Zanardelli (1826-1904) eliminated male preference in the line of succession to the Italian throne. As a result, Princess Lucia became the heir to the Italian throne. As a further result, the new heir Princess Lucia became very unpopular amongst the more conservative and reactionary members of the Italian government and nobility, all of whom wanted to see Lucia’s cousin Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Aosta (1871-1962) continue to be the heir to the Italian throne.
On October 3, 1907, the Great War broke out. Five days later, on October 8, 1907, the Kingdom of Italy honored its defensive alliance with the Kingdom of Prussia and the Russian Empire and declared war on the Second French Empire. Three days later, on October 11th, 1907, the French 6th Army launched Opération Rivoli, the invasion of the Kingdom of Italy. The Italian Army was caught completely unprepared. In spite of this, for the first month and a half of the war Princess Lucia worked as a war nurse on the frontlines of battle. This earned her a lot of praise from much of the Italian populace. However, she was also unpopular among much of the Italian populace for her outspoken pacifist views. Meanwhile, the Great War continued to go on. On October 15, 1907, Genoa was shelled by the French Navy. On October 23, 1907, the Italian army successfully repulsed an Austro-Hungarian attack on the Isonzo River. However, just two days later, Turin fell to the French armies on October 25, 1907. Some weeks, later, the climactic Battle of Novara began on November 4, 1907. In spite of a valiant Italian defense, the French completed their encirclement of Novara on December 19, 1907. General Luigi Cadorna (1850-1924) held the city until January 3, 1908 when he was forced to surrender to the French armies. On January 15, 1908, Milan then fell to the French. With that, two major north Italian cities, Turin and Milan, were occupied by the Second French Empire.
On January 19th, 1908, King Umberto I of Italy was assassinated at the age of 63 by a radical socialist named Giancarlo Rossetto (1886-1908). This assassination threw the Italian government of Prime Minister Paolo Boselli (1838-1927) into chaos. Meanwhile, the dead king’s only child, the increasingly unpopular 37 year-old Princess Lucia, was installed as Queen Lucia I of Italy. Unlike her father, Queen Lucia I heeded the advice of her defeatist ministers and on January 24, 1908 requested an armistice from the Entente Powers. Four days later, on the afternoon of January 28, 1908, the Kingdom of Italy officially withdrew from the Great War. The Treaty of Milan was signed the following week on February 5, 1908. A French “zone of perpetual occupation” was established north of the Tanaro and Po Rivers and included the regions of Piedmont, Lombardy and the Aosta Valley. As a result, France all but officially annexed northern Italy. The regions of Veneto and Friuli–Venezia Giulia were annexed by Austria-Hungry. The aforementioned areas included many of the most important industrial centers in Italy such as Turin, Milan, and Venice. Finally, severe restrictions were placed on the future size of the Italian army and navy.
On the home front, many Italians from all walks of life felt betrayed by the armistice, citing Italian successes on the Isonzo front and the heroic performance by the Italian armies at Novara as reasons against the surrender to the Entente Powers. Many Italians also felt deeply betrayed by the Savoyard monarchy for signing the Treaty of Milan and in doing so signing away the northern provinces to the Entente Powers. As a result, many Italians began to lose faith in the Italian monarchy and the House of Savoy. Over the next few months, the political situation in Rome became increasingly unstable. Many politicians began to look for an alternative to Queen Lucia I and the House of Savoy. It was in this volatile political climate that on May 16, 1908, Queen Lucia I was overthrown by a popularly backed military coup led by General Brancaleone Lucchesi (1864-1943). As a result, Lucia and the rest of the House of Savoy were forced to flee the country, and they fled by sea to Barcelona, Spain, as Lucia’s cousin Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Aosta was the son-in-law of the Spanish king Carlos VII (1848-1908). On May 20, 1908, the Italian parliament abolished the monarchy and the Republic of Italy was established. After forty-seven years, the Kingdom of Italy had ceased to exist. The Republic of Italy would eventually re-join the war on the side of the Allied victors.
Lucia I spent the rest of her life in exile. She lived in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain for the first few years of her exile. Desiring to live in a smaller town, Lucia I and her immediate family moved to Girona, Catalonia, Spain in 1912. After the suppression of the communist Hungarian Revolution, King Francis II of Hungary (1867-1940) offered his brother Prince Rodolfo Luigi and his sister-in-law Queen Lucia I to move to the Kingdom of Hungary. The couple eventually moved to Budapest, Hungary in the summer of 1920 and began to live a in large villa on the outskirts of the city. Her husband Rodolfo Luigi died of cancer in Budapest on July 24, 1929, leaving Lucia I devastated on and off for several months. In an effort to alleviate her depression, she moved to A Coruña, Galicia, Spain to live with her cousins. She lived there from 1929 to 1937. During this time, she also spent many vacations with her cousins in Portugal and the French Riviera. In 1937, she returned to Budapest, then she moved around Hungary for many years, after which she finally settled down in a large villa outside the town of Kaposvár in 1941. After nine years, Queen Lucia I, the final monarch of Italy, died in her home in Kaposvár, Kingdom of Hungary on June 26, 1950 at the age of 80. She was buried in a local cemetery. She died childless, so the pretender to the Italian throne became her cousin, Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Aosta, who became known to Italian monarchists as King Charles Emmanuel V.
In the immediate years after her death, most historians, particularly Italian historians, have had a very negative view of Queen Lucia I, with most seeing her as an ineffective, incompetent and apathetic monarch and a woman who would have been much more suited to being a nun or philanthropist than the monarch of a nation. However, in recent years some historians have begun to see Queen Lucia I in a more positive light, with many seeing her, in the words of Italian historian Matteo D'Alessio (1930-1997), as “a pious, kind and caring person who happened to be in the wrong place at the wrong time and whose heart always tried to be in the right place.” In 2013, the Italian and Hungarian governments allowed her body to be exhumed from Hungary and to be reburied in Italy. That same year, she was reburied in a private cemetery outside of Rome owned by the House of Savoy.
Lucia I was born as Princess Lucia in Rome, Italy on April 24, 1870. He father was Prince Umberto, the future King Umberto I of Italy (1844-1908) and her mother was Princess Mathilde of Austria, the future Queen Mathilde of Italy (1849-1922). She was the only child of King Umberto II of Italy. Growing up, Princess Lucia was educated throughout Italy by a number of private governesses, and she was brought up to admire and to learn about and study Italian culture and history. She also learned the languages of Latin, Greek, French, Spanish, German and English. Her first major public appearance was at the funeral of her grandfather King Victor Emmanuel II in Rome on September 29, 1885. Throughout her life, Lucia was a devout Roman Catholic. During her time as a princess, beginning in the early 1890s, she saw to the establishment of numerous Roman Catholic orphanages and charities, mostly in the impoverished rural regions of southern Italy, and these institutions helped to alleviate poverty for many average Italians. She also wanted to see a solution to the Pope being “a prisoner in the Vatican”, but such a solution never came to pass during her future reign. On June 29, 1895, she married Archduke Rudolf Ludwig (1868-1929) a son of Archduke Karl Ludwig of Austria (1833-1894) and the nephew of Emperor Maximillian I of Austria-Hungary (1832-1922). As a result, Archduke Rudolf Ludwig became Prince Rodolfo Luigi of Italy. He was also the future Prince Consort Rodolfo Luigi of Italy. The couple was always happily married and never had any children. In 1898, the Italian government of Prime Minister Giuseppe Zanardelli (1826-1904) eliminated male preference in the line of succession to the Italian throne. As a result, Princess Lucia became the heir to the Italian throne. As a further result, the new heir Princess Lucia became very unpopular amongst the more conservative and reactionary members of the Italian government and nobility, all of whom wanted to see Lucia’s cousin Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Aosta (1871-1962) continue to be the heir to the Italian throne.
On October 3, 1907, the Great War broke out. Five days later, on October 8, 1907, the Kingdom of Italy honored its defensive alliance with the Kingdom of Prussia and the Russian Empire and declared war on the Second French Empire. Three days later, on October 11th, 1907, the French 6th Army launched Opération Rivoli, the invasion of the Kingdom of Italy. The Italian Army was caught completely unprepared. In spite of this, for the first month and a half of the war Princess Lucia worked as a war nurse on the frontlines of battle. This earned her a lot of praise from much of the Italian populace. However, she was also unpopular among much of the Italian populace for her outspoken pacifist views. Meanwhile, the Great War continued to go on. On October 15, 1907, Genoa was shelled by the French Navy. On October 23, 1907, the Italian army successfully repulsed an Austro-Hungarian attack on the Isonzo River. However, just two days later, Turin fell to the French armies on October 25, 1907. Some weeks, later, the climactic Battle of Novara began on November 4, 1907. In spite of a valiant Italian defense, the French completed their encirclement of Novara on December 19, 1907. General Luigi Cadorna (1850-1924) held the city until January 3, 1908 when he was forced to surrender to the French armies. On January 15, 1908, Milan then fell to the French. With that, two major north Italian cities, Turin and Milan, were occupied by the Second French Empire.
On January 19th, 1908, King Umberto I of Italy was assassinated at the age of 63 by a radical socialist named Giancarlo Rossetto (1886-1908). This assassination threw the Italian government of Prime Minister Paolo Boselli (1838-1927) into chaos. Meanwhile, the dead king’s only child, the increasingly unpopular 37 year-old Princess Lucia, was installed as Queen Lucia I of Italy. Unlike her father, Queen Lucia I heeded the advice of her defeatist ministers and on January 24, 1908 requested an armistice from the Entente Powers. Four days later, on the afternoon of January 28, 1908, the Kingdom of Italy officially withdrew from the Great War. The Treaty of Milan was signed the following week on February 5, 1908. A French “zone of perpetual occupation” was established north of the Tanaro and Po Rivers and included the regions of Piedmont, Lombardy and the Aosta Valley. As a result, France all but officially annexed northern Italy. The regions of Veneto and Friuli–Venezia Giulia were annexed by Austria-Hungry. The aforementioned areas included many of the most important industrial centers in Italy such as Turin, Milan, and Venice. Finally, severe restrictions were placed on the future size of the Italian army and navy.
On the home front, many Italians from all walks of life felt betrayed by the armistice, citing Italian successes on the Isonzo front and the heroic performance by the Italian armies at Novara as reasons against the surrender to the Entente Powers. Many Italians also felt deeply betrayed by the Savoyard monarchy for signing the Treaty of Milan and in doing so signing away the northern provinces to the Entente Powers. As a result, many Italians began to lose faith in the Italian monarchy and the House of Savoy. Over the next few months, the political situation in Rome became increasingly unstable. Many politicians began to look for an alternative to Queen Lucia I and the House of Savoy. It was in this volatile political climate that on May 16, 1908, Queen Lucia I was overthrown by a popularly backed military coup led by General Brancaleone Lucchesi (1864-1943). As a result, Lucia and the rest of the House of Savoy were forced to flee the country, and they fled by sea to Barcelona, Spain, as Lucia’s cousin Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Aosta was the son-in-law of the Spanish king Carlos VII (1848-1908). On May 20, 1908, the Italian parliament abolished the monarchy and the Republic of Italy was established. After forty-seven years, the Kingdom of Italy had ceased to exist. The Republic of Italy would eventually re-join the war on the side of the Allied victors.
Lucia I spent the rest of her life in exile. She lived in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain for the first few years of her exile. Desiring to live in a smaller town, Lucia I and her immediate family moved to Girona, Catalonia, Spain in 1912. After the suppression of the communist Hungarian Revolution, King Francis II of Hungary (1867-1940) offered his brother Prince Rodolfo Luigi and his sister-in-law Queen Lucia I to move to the Kingdom of Hungary. The couple eventually moved to Budapest, Hungary in the summer of 1920 and began to live a in large villa on the outskirts of the city. Her husband Rodolfo Luigi died of cancer in Budapest on July 24, 1929, leaving Lucia I devastated on and off for several months. In an effort to alleviate her depression, she moved to A Coruña, Galicia, Spain to live with her cousins. She lived there from 1929 to 1937. During this time, she also spent many vacations with her cousins in Portugal and the French Riviera. In 1937, she returned to Budapest, then she moved around Hungary for many years, after which she finally settled down in a large villa outside the town of Kaposvár in 1941. After nine years, Queen Lucia I, the final monarch of Italy, died in her home in Kaposvár, Kingdom of Hungary on June 26, 1950 at the age of 80. She was buried in a local cemetery. She died childless, so the pretender to the Italian throne became her cousin, Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Aosta, who became known to Italian monarchists as King Charles Emmanuel V.
In the immediate years after her death, most historians, particularly Italian historians, have had a very negative view of Queen Lucia I, with most seeing her as an ineffective, incompetent and apathetic monarch and a woman who would have been much more suited to being a nun or philanthropist than the monarch of a nation. However, in recent years some historians have begun to see Queen Lucia I in a more positive light, with many seeing her, in the words of Italian historian Matteo D'Alessio (1930-1997), as “a pious, kind and caring person who happened to be in the wrong place at the wrong time and whose heart always tried to be in the right place.” In 2013, the Italian and Hungarian governments allowed her body to be exhumed from Hungary and to be reburied in Italy. That same year, she was reburied in a private cemetery outside of Rome owned by the House of Savoy.
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Profile: Luis II
Luis II (1866-1919)
Luis II was born as Infante Dom Luis, Duke of Porto on May 2, 1866 in the Palace of Ajuda in Lisbon, Portugal. His father was King Luis I of Portugal (1838-1890) and his mother was Queen Maria Pia of Savoy (1847-1914), the daughter of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy (1820-1885) who through her was his grandfather. His older brother and only sibling was Carlos, Prince Royal, the future King Carlos I of Portugal (1863-1916). The young Infante Luis, Duke of Porto was, like his older brother, the beneficiary of an intense and rigorous education. Throughout the late 1870s and early 1880s, he traveled along with his older brother to Spain, France, Great Britain, Italy, Germany and Austria-Hungary. Starting in 1884, the eighteen year-old Infante Lius served in the infantry of the Portuguese Army. Throughout his many years of military service, Infante Luis, Duke of Porto served in numerous different locations, including Metropolitan Portugal, Angola, Moçambique, Goa and Macau. At the relatively young age of twenty-nine, the Duke of Porto was appointed to the rank of general in 1895. From 1896 to 1898, he served as the head of the Portuguese forces in Moçambique. All in all, the Duke of Porto was remembered as a strict yet competent and hard-working officer and general.
After returning to Portugal in 1898, the Duke of Porto retired from the Portuguese military after an eventful fourteen-year career, though he continued to hold the rank of general until his ascension to the throne. He also continued to wear his military uniform during military parades and other such special events. In 1900, the Duke was in a romantic relationship with and sought marriage to Archduchess Sophia Mathilde of Austria (1864-1932), the youngest child of the ill-fated Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I (1830-1866). However, such a marriage never came to pass as the relationship between the two gradually deteriorated by 1903, as the two barely had anything in common with each other and failed to get along consistently. Throughout his life and after his death, many alleged that the Duke of Porto and future King Luis II was a homosexual, citing his introverted personality, his unsuccessful relationship with Archduchess Sophia Mathilde of Austria and numerous rumors of romantic affairs with both wealthy and average Portuguese men. His sexuality is still in dispute, but most historians believe that he was a bisexual, as rumors of affairs with both wealthy and average Portuguese women also circulated. The Duke of Porto served as the Portuguese ambassador to Great Britain, the centuries old ally of Portugal, from 1903 to 1906. A few years later, during the last years of the Great War, Dom Luis served as a military attaché to the British army and observed many of the new and innovative wartime developments in the British military.
Throughout most of his adult life, the Duke of Porto had the reputation of a somewhat introverted, yet also serious, humble, warm and friendly man. Throughout the 1900s, he helped to establish numerous orphanages, both religious and otherwise, throughout metropolitan Portugal and the colonies, particularly Angola and Moçambique. He was also a proud patron of the arts and sciences, and he donated a lot of money to numerous museums, universities and cultural institutions throughout metropolitan Portugal. In his personal life, the Infante, Duke and future King was an avid collector and modeler of military figurines, with a particular interest in military figurines of the Napoleonic Wars. He was also an avid reader and an avid collector of books, especially novels and works of history. He also collected African tribal art, an interest that carried over from his military service in the colonies. After his death in 1919, his collections were all donated to numerous museums across Portugal, including the Royal Portuguese Museum in Lisbon.
On May 16, 1916, Carlos I died of malaria in Luanda. Carlos I’s only son who did not die in infancy, Miguel, Prince Royal, died of tuberculosis in 1903 at the age of fourteen. As a result, the 50 year-old Infante Luis, Duke of Porto succeeded his older brother as King of Portugal as King Luis II. The fact that King Luis II did not have any children led to the Portuguese succession crisis of 1916. In October, 1916, the crisis was finally resolved. The Portuguese government of Prime Minister Boaventura Nunes (1869-1960) stated that if Luis II could not produce an heir before his death the Portuguese throne would pass to the Miguelist claimant to the Portuguese throne Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, who was the eldest son of the late Miguel, Duke of Braganza (1853-1913). Throughout his brief, three year reign, King Luis II oversaw the continued industrialization of Portugal, the introduction of new British-inspired reforms in the Portuguese military, an increase in emigration overseas and to the African colonies of Angola and Moçamque, Portugal’s participation in the first Olympic games in 1918, an increase in funding for colonial infrastructure and in an increase in funding for education both in metropolitan Portugal and the colonies. After a brief and mostly uneventful reign, King Luis II of Portugal died of throat cancer on June 23, 1919 at the age of 53. He was succeeded as King of Portugal by his 36 year-old distant relative and the Miguelist claimant to the throne of Portugal, Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, who succeeded him as King Ferdinand III (1882-1949).
Luis II was born as Infante Dom Luis, Duke of Porto on May 2, 1866 in the Palace of Ajuda in Lisbon, Portugal. His father was King Luis I of Portugal (1838-1890) and his mother was Queen Maria Pia of Savoy (1847-1914), the daughter of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy (1820-1885) who through her was his grandfather. His older brother and only sibling was Carlos, Prince Royal, the future King Carlos I of Portugal (1863-1916). The young Infante Luis, Duke of Porto was, like his older brother, the beneficiary of an intense and rigorous education. Throughout the late 1870s and early 1880s, he traveled along with his older brother to Spain, France, Great Britain, Italy, Germany and Austria-Hungary. Starting in 1884, the eighteen year-old Infante Lius served in the infantry of the Portuguese Army. Throughout his many years of military service, Infante Luis, Duke of Porto served in numerous different locations, including Metropolitan Portugal, Angola, Moçambique, Goa and Macau. At the relatively young age of twenty-nine, the Duke of Porto was appointed to the rank of general in 1895. From 1896 to 1898, he served as the head of the Portuguese forces in Moçambique. All in all, the Duke of Porto was remembered as a strict yet competent and hard-working officer and general.
After returning to Portugal in 1898, the Duke of Porto retired from the Portuguese military after an eventful fourteen-year career, though he continued to hold the rank of general until his ascension to the throne. He also continued to wear his military uniform during military parades and other such special events. In 1900, the Duke was in a romantic relationship with and sought marriage to Archduchess Sophia Mathilde of Austria (1864-1932), the youngest child of the ill-fated Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I (1830-1866). However, such a marriage never came to pass as the relationship between the two gradually deteriorated by 1903, as the two barely had anything in common with each other and failed to get along consistently. Throughout his life and after his death, many alleged that the Duke of Porto and future King Luis II was a homosexual, citing his introverted personality, his unsuccessful relationship with Archduchess Sophia Mathilde of Austria and numerous rumors of romantic affairs with both wealthy and average Portuguese men. His sexuality is still in dispute, but most historians believe that he was a bisexual, as rumors of affairs with both wealthy and average Portuguese women also circulated. The Duke of Porto served as the Portuguese ambassador to Great Britain, the centuries old ally of Portugal, from 1903 to 1906. A few years later, during the last years of the Great War, Dom Luis served as a military attaché to the British army and observed many of the new and innovative wartime developments in the British military.
Throughout most of his adult life, the Duke of Porto had the reputation of a somewhat introverted, yet also serious, humble, warm and friendly man. Throughout the 1900s, he helped to establish numerous orphanages, both religious and otherwise, throughout metropolitan Portugal and the colonies, particularly Angola and Moçambique. He was also a proud patron of the arts and sciences, and he donated a lot of money to numerous museums, universities and cultural institutions throughout metropolitan Portugal. In his personal life, the Infante, Duke and future King was an avid collector and modeler of military figurines, with a particular interest in military figurines of the Napoleonic Wars. He was also an avid reader and an avid collector of books, especially novels and works of history. He also collected African tribal art, an interest that carried over from his military service in the colonies. After his death in 1919, his collections were all donated to numerous museums across Portugal, including the Royal Portuguese Museum in Lisbon.
On May 16, 1916, Carlos I died of malaria in Luanda. Carlos I’s only son who did not die in infancy, Miguel, Prince Royal, died of tuberculosis in 1903 at the age of fourteen. As a result, the 50 year-old Infante Luis, Duke of Porto succeeded his older brother as King of Portugal as King Luis II. The fact that King Luis II did not have any children led to the Portuguese succession crisis of 1916. In October, 1916, the crisis was finally resolved. The Portuguese government of Prime Minister Boaventura Nunes (1869-1960) stated that if Luis II could not produce an heir before his death the Portuguese throne would pass to the Miguelist claimant to the Portuguese throne Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, who was the eldest son of the late Miguel, Duke of Braganza (1853-1913). Throughout his brief, three year reign, King Luis II oversaw the continued industrialization of Portugal, the introduction of new British-inspired reforms in the Portuguese military, an increase in emigration overseas and to the African colonies of Angola and Moçamque, Portugal’s participation in the first Olympic games in 1918, an increase in funding for colonial infrastructure and in an increase in funding for education both in metropolitan Portugal and the colonies. After a brief and mostly uneventful reign, King Luis II of Portugal died of throat cancer on June 23, 1919 at the age of 53. He was succeeded as King of Portugal by his 36 year-old distant relative and the Miguelist claimant to the throne of Portugal, Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, who succeeded him as King Ferdinand III (1882-1949).
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