The Roman Republic - 1848

[ChaosNDiscord]

Okay, first off, hi everybody, new to the site so please be nice

I had a thought for a timeline, which is a bit of a stretch to see panning out this way, but I suppose anything could happen when you start tweaking history.

In 1848 much of Europe was wracked by a series of popular revolutions pitting those who had little, often the urban poor, versus those who held power. Many of the revolutions failed outright and were quickly put down with a good deal of bloodshed, but succeded in France and for a very short time, in the Papal States. In our timeline, Napoleon III had gained power in France thanks to the Revolution and then owing much of his backing to conservative catholics, invaded the Roman Republic to restore the Pope to Rome.

In this line, Napoleon III (Louis Napoleon) didn't watch his brother die in his arms as they fled Italy, both of the brothers found their deaths in 1831. The Revolutions of 1848 hit, the Second Republic began to unravel and Louis-Eugene Cavaignac is granted full powers of state to stabilize the brewing revolt in Paris. After a delay to gather troops, Cavaignac crushes the revolt with much bloodshed. Shortly thereafter, much as in our timeline he relinquishes his dictatorial power while an election was held. Without the Bonapartist opposition, the conservatives are fragmented and Cavaignac wins the election with a slim majority.

Franch begins to muddle along in the care of a moderate republican goverment, though it is thoroughly divided amongst the leftist, monarchists, and moderates.

During this time Italian Republicans overthrow the papal government and set up their Roman Republic. Some French revolutionaries, attracted by this more liberal state come to support the fledgling country which is heavily threatened by a hostile Austria. Garibaldi and his troops manage to ward off bits and pieces of the Austrian forces but it is clear they cannot hold out forever. Fortunately for the nascent republic, France, which has interests of its own in Italy and has no intention of seeing Austria become the dominant power on the peninsula, and Austria's own internal dissension prevents the restoration of the Papal State.

The Italians move to set up a very modern liberal republic, at the same time working to unify the rest of the Italian states. The end result is an Italy unified sooner than in OTL, under a liberal republic rather than a conservative monarchy.

Thoughts?

 

[Shawn Endresen]

I'd be interested in the French part, and I don't think the Second Republic will be as dysfunctional as you think The unification's going to be tricky though - the Papal States traditionally relied upon Naples when they needed a military. Conservative Naples isn't going to help a Roman Republic though, and is likely to try and conquer it. Venice, Milan, and Tuscany have all gone Republican, but the first two will collapse in corruption in a matter of years; forging northern Italy into a single Republic won't be a fast process.

I guess what I'm saying is that the Republic is going to have trouble fending off aggressive invaders for a decade or so, and I'm not sure it has the resources to defend itself. France might defend it, but then again they might not, nor would it necessarily be a popular move back in France.

 

[Vitruvius]

I guess what I'm saying is that the Republic is going to have trouble fending off aggressive invaders for a decade or so, and I'm not sure it has the resources to defend itself. France might defend it, but then again they might not, nor would it necessarily be a popular move back in France.

I have to agree. After Novara it was only a matter of time before Radetzky turned his attention southward. Ferdinand of Two Sicilies was also massing a force on the border, not to mention harboring the Pope and Grand Duke of Tuscany in Gaeta. IIRC there was even talk in Spain of sending a relief force to help the Pope. Napoleon III ordered Oudinot to advance and capture Rome before one of these other powers did.

So I think you would need active French support not just neutrality to prop up the Roman Republic. And I'm not sure about alliances at least right away. There's no way to save the Republics in Venice and Milan from the Austrians. And the Tuscan Republic explicitly declared its intention to remain independent at the same time it expressed its solidarity with Rome. Mazzini bemoaned this as the triumph of provincialism over liberalism and nationalism. Of course its a moot point as Tuscany probably can't be saved from Austrians either.

Having said that it would be great to keep the Republic around. To Mazzini's credit even when he knew the state was doomed he maintained a very moderate, orderly state. Anti-clericalism was kept to a minimum and relatively little church property was confiscated. The main problem was that he only came to power when the radical democrats were galvanized by the defeat at Novara, the Austrian occupation of Bologna, the suppression of the revolt in Genoa and the threats of force from Two-Sicilies. Which is to say that by the time the Republic took form the momentum had shifted firmly to the reactionary camp throughout Italy. Short of a full scale French expedition its hard to save the Republic. And supporting a large foreign army isn't going to do wonders for the stability of the Republic.

I think the best bet might be to kill the Pope - or rather if the Pope were to die at Gaeta and a new more moderate Pope was elected, supported and acknowledged by France perhaps he could come to terms with the Republic and accept its offer to return as a spiritual ruler. This might then disperse the alliance of Catholic powers bent on invading. Its pretty clear that Pius IX was never going to accept the loss of temporal power, he refused to negotiate with the Kingdom of Italy when the Papal States were later annexed, so a more amenable Pontiff might be the key to saving the Roman Republic.

 

[ChaosNDiscord]

My thoughts for what I'm planning on writing do offer a benevolently neutral France which is more than willing to rattle some sabers but isn't about to directly intervene in Rome. There are too many French catholics who wouldn't mind seeing the Roman Republic cut down and the Pope restored for that.

As to the provinicalism in Italy, I had thought that once France made clear she would not look kindly on outside interference (and don't forget that by this time Spain was a third rate power, no way she'd be willing to risk war with France). Garibaldi free from worrying about defeating a French invasion (as he initially did in OTL) or Spanish/Austrian intervention, moves south to aid the Sicilian revolt. By spring 1849 Sicily is in rebel hands and forms an Italian Federation with Rome. Garibaldi then moves to the mainland and in a series of battles beats the Napolitian (basically his invasion of the Thousand happens 12 years early).

During the invasion, the Pope is accidentally killed while fleeing prompting Austian intervention. This brings the rest of the Italian powers, most notably Piedmont, into the war. With the aid of support from France (Volunteers, Guns, Supplies) and more limited aid from Britain (mostly in the form of volunteers units) the Italian states fight Austria to a draw. Tuscany and Modena are taken into the Republic, while Parma is absorbed by Piedmont-Sardinia.

After this things simmer down for a time while the repulicans consolidate and build their forces...

I really haven't thought about things much further than that. I'm still trying to puzzle out what they would do next. They need to bring Piedmont-Sardinia into the Republic, but war would bring Austrian intervention. They could offer Nice and Savoy in exchange for French aid (much as happened in OTL when Sardinia went to war with Austria in 1860), or promote internal dissent and hope that Sardinia 'comes over'. Either way, I think that the final unification with Venice and Milan wouldn't occur until Prussia under Bismark challenges Austria in alliance with Italy as per OTL.

 

[ChaosNDiscord]

Okay, so I didn't want to start a brand new thread for this, but I'm going to try out my first TL here, I'll note things that actually did happen in OTL in the first post. After that things may diverge fairly quickly, especially in Italy, where my focus is going to be.

The Examiner - March 20th 1831

The bodies of two young men, believed to be the nephews of the former French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, were discovered in the city of Forli in the Papal State. Both men were known to be associated with the semi-secret carbonari or ‘coal-burners’ that had recently attempted another revolt in the hopes of forming a unified Italian state. It appears both men had been attempting to flee the peninsula, much like rats deserting a foundering ship, after Austrian intervention made clear that the plans of these revolutionaries would fail.
It remains perfectly clear, that even more than a decade after the removal of Napoleon Bonaparte, his family and their ambitious nature make them a threat to stability and peace on the continent wherever they may go. Let us hope, that this family has no more chances to shed the blood of innocents and let peace reign in Europe once more.

The Events of March-December 1848 *

Noting the success of republican revolutionaries in Paris, revolts began to spread throughout Europe. Almost every major continental power, save Russia, The Netherlands, The Ottoman Empire, and the Scandinavian Powers were wracked by revolts. In Austria, Metternich the Foreign Minister who orchestrated the aftermath of the Napoleonic wars, who was seen as a reactionary force, was forced to resign and afterwards fled with his family to the safety of London.

France, 10th December 1848

After the radicals in Paris were put down by Louis Eugene Cavaignac**, he, with massive support from the rural peasantry was overwhelmingly elected President of the 2nd Republic. Cavaignac was seen as a moderate candidate, true he had crushed the Paris uprising with surprising brutality, but the mobs had left him with little choice in the matter. At the same time he was not fully under the sway of the monarchist conservative classes either. Cavaignac promised a middle course, there would be reform but without the excesses of the radicals or the return to the oppressiveness of the Monarchy. France would seek to maintain peace with her neighbors, but at the same time offer support to those nations that sought to embrace democracy and republicanism.
By August 1848, Austria, her treasury depleted and unable to overcome all the various rebellious forces within the Empire on her own was forced to ask for Russian intervention. Various regions of Hungary continued to resist until late December 1848, with insurgency continuing until the end of the following year. Meanwhile, revolts in Slovakia would last until the spring of 1849.***


* In OTL inspired by the events of Paris, revolts broke out across Europe. Many governments were forced to yield to at least some demands of the revolutionaries, only to roll back the agreements later.
** Cavaignac was made Minister of War and Dictator of France when the radical elements of the revolution rose up against moderation of the demands that were bankrupting the country (and would likely have led to a revolt of the rural areas). Surprisingly (at least to myself) he voluntarily surrendered his powers and an election was held which historically elected Louis-Napoleon (later Napoleon III), who ITTL died in 1831, our POD.
*** The paragraph about the revolts in Austria dis happen OTL. The treasury of Austria warned the Emperor that they were rapidly running out of funds. Austria recieved aid from Prussia to recapture Vienna from revolutionaries and Hungarians, and Russian aid to crush the Hungarian and Polish revolts.

 

[ChaosNDiscord]

Roman Republic, 29th March 1849

“Giuseppe my friend, it is good to see you again. I hope that you can aid us as you did the revolution in South America.”
“Mazzini,” replied Garibaldi, a smile playing upon his lips, extended his arm and took the preferred hand. “So, what trouble have you caused this time?”
“None yet, I have not had the opportunity." He answered witha weary smile. "Now however I am part of the Triumvate, a trio who will guide the republic until we finish a true constitution.”
“And unification? What of that?”
“We have not abandoned that goal friend, but Austria is strong in the north. She has nearly recovered from the revolutions, and with the help of those damn Russians, she was able to put down the Hungarian revolution.”
“A shame that.”
“Truly. If she were distracted with a war in half her lands, seizing Milan would have been the work of a child. As it stands now, we must prepare. The Pope calls like a frightened sheep and sooner or later one of the shepards will come to save him.”
“I do not think France will aid him Mazzini, there are many catholics in France that cry for our heads, but their ruler, this Cavaignac, he will not heed the call of their conservative elements.”
“In this I agree. France wishes peace and prosperity, not another adventure. I think she may rattle her sword, perhaps for us or against us, but will not attack. Spain or Austria…”
“Spain? Do you truly believe so?”
“It is certainly a possibility.”
“I do not believe that France or Britain would allow Spain the chance to conquer pieces of Italy.”
“Well there is still Austria. She is strong, and though her power is mainly in the north, she can move against us.”
“And if she does, we will be ready. There are all ready over a thousand volunteers to form an army, and more come in from the north every day. I shall begin to train them immediately. If Austria moves, she will receive quite a bleeding.”
“I hope so Guiseppi, for the fate of the Republic I hope so.”
“It is not for the Republic I fight, it is for Italy!”

 

[ChaosNDiscord]

Treviso, Lombardy-Venezia, 14 May 1849

“We will split out forces, von Weigelspurg’s division shall march on Ferrara. The city should surrender quickly. Von Rath shall move on Ravenna. The second corps shall remain in Milan to guard against those damn Piedmontese, and Third and Fourth Corps will continue the siege of Venice.” Field Marshal Radetzky announced finally.
“Are you sure we should split our forces sir? Perhaps all of First corps should take Ferrara.”
“Bah! These Republicans,” Radetzky spat the word, “have no army worth mentioning.”
“They have Garibaldi and his volunteer force.” Oberst Johann Graf Wratislaw relied.
“Ha! That adventurer and his rabble? I do not fear such men. Our army is well trained, well disciplined and outnumbers them more than five to one.”
“We shouldn’t underestimate him sir, the reports of his victories in south America-“
Radetzky waved his hand dismissively, “We shall see what this Garibaldi can do. Issue the orders. Once Garibaldi and his rabble come to face us, we will crush him and this republic, then perhaps take a few pieces of the Pope’s land for Austria.”


Rieti, Roman Republic, 16 May 1849

“They are on the move! They are marching!” Shouted an excited young messenger, charging onto the balcony overlooking a courtyard where a squadron of new recruits drilled with their rifles.
“Calm yourself. Here, let me have that,” came the measured response of Guiseppe Garibaldi, reaching out to take the paper the messenger waved about frantically. Garibaldi paused to look over the small cramped writing then nodded to himself, balled up the paper and tossed it aside. “So it begins,” he muttered to himself before leaning over the railing and calling down, “Ready the men! We march in two hours!”

 

[ChaosNDiscord]

A Study of the Wars of Italian Unification, James McKenzie, PH.D

The Battle of Comacchio, 26 May 1849

The division of von Rath’s troops which numbered just over seven thousand hardly seemed to be invading an enemy country. The men and officers, expecting little to no resistance had only haphazard cavalry screens in front and behind the columns. The army followed the poor road network along the eastern coast of the peninsula, marching slowly southwards, staying along the roads to avoid the marshy areas which continually slowed their advance and forced the army to stretch itself out.

Garibaldi’s troops, calling themselves the Army of the Republic, now just over two and half thousand men with only six guns awaited the enemy. Garibaldi, aided by spies amongst the populace hid his troops in the marsh. On the morning of the 26th of May, before the sun broke the horizon, he struck. His men descended up the Austrian encampments and murdered hundred of their foes in their beds. What had been a glorious march of Austrian arms turned into a slaughter.

Garibaldi’s men kept up the pressure, forcing the Austrians off the road and into the swamp where they became scattered and small groups of men were isolated from one another, exactly the sort of fighting in which Garibaldi and his men excelled. By midday the Austrian middle had vanished, the lead elements were scattered in the swamps and being pushed back continually towards the lake.

At about one pm, the rear cavalry elements of the Austrians arrived, five hundred horse. As they charged into the fray the carefully concealed Italian guns fired into their ranks, raking them with concealed fire. As their horse broke upon the road the cavalry too was forced into the march where they where they became nearly useless.

By sundown the battle had ended, Garibaldi’s troops had saved Ravenna for the moment, scattering an entire division of the Austrian Army of Italy’s 1st Corps. Total losses on the day were estimated at about 2700 dead or wounded Austrians to 400 for the Italians. In addition several wagonloads of supplies and a trio of guns were recovered by the Republican forces.

 

[LordKalvan]

It is a novel approach, and I am interested to see how it develops.
IMHO, the Roman republic is ultimately doomed (the chance for a popular revolution and an eventual unification of Italy came and went in the late spring of 1848, but this would be a different story ). Still even if at the end the republic is suppressed it would be a very important political statement, and would certainly change the future of Italian history.

I would believe that the only real chance for survival would be to topple the Borbonic regime in Naples and Sicily. It might happen (IOTL it happened 10 years later) and some external support (aka. British fleet protection) would be probably available.

Re. Piedmont-Sardinia, I would believe that a revolutionary success in the centre and south of Italy would push the Savoys to renege on most of the liberal concessions of 1848. After which internal disorders (starting from Genoa) might topple the kingdom from within.

 

[ChaosNDiscord]

A Study of the Wars of Italian Unification, James McKenzie, PH.D


The Austrian Nadir, June/July 1849

After the Battle of Comacchio, news of Garibaldi’s triumph spread throughout Italy. Despite having routed one Austrian division, the general knew the war was far from won. Another division had besieged Ferrara and the Austrians still had many more forces they could call upon. Far more than the Italians could match. Still, the ranks of the republican army began to swell in the following weeks, bringing the numerical, but not qualitative strength of the Italian force to over five thousand men.

In the Kingdom of Two Sicilies, the popular revolt in Sicily that had controlled a majority of the island for the past twelve months transformed into a call for unification with Rome and a declaration of war on Austria. Riots broke out in the Duchies of Parma and Modena, as well as Tuscany and Piedmont, demanding war with the Austrian occupiers. The rulers of these territories of course had generally no desire for war. Victory would lead to a demand for unification and ultimately a loss of their individual power. However, while the nationalist feeling in Piedmont was harnessed once again, leading to a third declaration of war between Piedmont and Austria in as many years, the people of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany once again drove out their rulers and began assembling forces. The Kingdom of Two Sicilies which had been slowly amassing forces to retake the island of Sicily suddenly found themselves confronted with troops that had no wish to engage their Italian brothers; rather many began to desert and move north to join the growing war.

While by July’s end, Ferrara had fallen to Austria, they former besiegers were suddenly on the other end of a siege as Garibaldi’s troops cut their supplies and in a masterful series of running battles pushed the Austrians into the city. Realizing they could not long hold out in the midst of a hostile populace, von Wielspurg accepted Garibaldi’s terms: disarmament and parole back to Austria.

Faced with an Italian populace united in hostility to their attempted invasion, Austria moved another Corps from the heartland to northern Italy, relying more heavily on the remaining Russian forces to subdue the remaining Hungarian insurgents.

Austrian Resurgence, August-October 1849

The Austrian Second Corps, relieved from watching the Piedmontese by the Third and Fourth Corps of the Army of Italy marched south, intent on destroying Garibaldi once and for all. Both sides had gathered their strength over the past few weeks. The Italians under Garibaldi were much better disciplined than at the beginning of the war, and in fact resembled a true army. In his memoirs Radetzky remarked that the transformation of Garibaldi’s troops from armed rabble to a true military force was a ‘miracle of the first order’ and ‘a clear indication of the qualities of my opponent’. None the less Garibaldi was once again facing overwhelming odds, and this time decided to await his opponents attack. The Austrians learned form their mistakes and marched in good order, protecting their supplies. There were many guerilla bands that continued to harass their Germanic foes, but they could do little against their heavily guarded enemy supply wagons.

As the second corps approached, news of Piedmont’s defeat near Alessandria was a blow to the morale of Garibaldi’s army. The barely contested occupation of Parma and Modena further reduced the morale of troops from those states. Garibaldi rather than attacking moved to the defense along the Reno river, near a marshy wooded area which protected his flanks and avenues of retreat.

On September 8th, 1849, as the sun began to rise, Austrian troops and their Italian counterparts began to form lines. The Austrians condensed their thirty odd cannon into the center of the line and began to shell the Italian formations. The Italians responded in kind with their thirteen guns, but the marksmanship of the Italians was no match for that of the Austrians. After about two hours of exchanging fire the Austrians marched in a full out frontal assault.

Despite a heroic effort by the Italian troops, they could not hold out under the immense pressure of the Austrian heavy infantry. By mid afternoon Garibaldi sounded the retreat, which despite several near-run incidents remained mostly orderly. Unfortunately for the Italians, most of their guns had been ruined in the duel and the few that remained were abandoned by the artillery troops when it became clear the battle was lost.

Garibaldi led his troops into the marshes and then the Apennine Mountains, while the Austrian troops continued to pursue and harry him. This would continue until the end of October, with Garibaldi stopping briefly to nip at his pursuers, ambush a wagon train here, assault a small garrison there, then move on before the Austrians could bring their full weight to crush the republican army. In the north, Tuscany surrendered to Austria, and Austrian troops occupied Pisa and Florence, while Piedmont finally fought Radestky’s troops to a standstill in early October.

By the end of the month, Radetsky had regathered his strength and in a brilliant campaign well documented in Gerald Cowen’s “The Battles of Vater Radetsky” utterly crushed the Piedmontese forces in two weeks.

On October 27th, hearing news of Piedmont’s defeat and surrender, a counter revolt to restore Ferdinand II to the throne of the Kingdom of Two Sicilies broke out in Taranto. By the end of the month, Italian forces were in retreat or humbled across the peninsula and it seemed as if northern Italy might at least be united, under the Austrian banner.

 

[ChaosNDiscord]

The High Tide

“This is intolerable!” Radetzky shouted at his Adjutant General Carl von Schoenhals. “These, these… peasants continue to attack our supplies. They must be made to respect our strength!”
“Sir with all due respect we are doing what we can. We have patrols-“
“That are ambushed when they ride after these attackers! They lure us into ambush after ambush.”
“Mere pinpricks, they cannot defeat us in open battle.”
“Pinpricks hurt, they make us bleed. They will not need to defeat us openly. They sap our strength little by little.”
“We are chasing the enemy through the mountains, if we divide our troops-“
“If we divide Garibaldi will destroy us piecemeal. He is no fool. I underestimated him once, I will not do so again. No, we must hound him and hope he makes a mistake. From the reports we receive we know he loses men, morale of his troops is low. We control all of northern Italy, what hope can they have? As soon as Venice falls, we shall bring those troops south and march on Rome, Garibaldi will have no choice but to meet us in battle then, and he will be destroyed!”

********************************************************

Mazzini looked haggard and tired, it was one thing to be the soul of a revolution, quite another to actually manage the government installed by one. He had been working with his colleagues Carlo Armellini and Antonio Salicetti to draft a constitution for the Roman Republic, one which would ensure freedom and equality. Those men took the lead in the writing, while Mazzini offered up his suggestions and criticisms. The men looked to the United States for inspiration on their design, but also to Britain and France. Still progress had been slow, aside from these matters, it had been made clear the treasury was draining, the tax burden on the peasants was too heavy and they were becoming upset, while the government outspent its income. If things continued, the currency would soon be worthless!

Still, the ruling Triumvirate had restructured the tax code, improving revenues, and slashed expenditures while also seizing church property. That had not been a popular move, until the Pope, hiding in Gaeta had called for a crusade against the Republic, excommunicating all the leaders of the movement and any citizen who sided with the Republican movement. The Pope had not stopped there, he had declared that it was the duty of all Christians to slay mercilessly the leaders of the movement that overthrew the rule of God’s highest priest.

The situation had grown more critical when a Catholic zealot had attempted to kill the ruling council with a bomb, triggering a massive riot in Rome. Supporters of the Pope and those who condemned him clashed in the streets for three days. It seemed as if the Republic was quickly unraveling beneath them.

“What do you have?” Mazzini inquired of the messenger who cautiously opened the door to his work chamber.
“A message from General Garibaldi,” the young man replied, slowly handing the letter to Mazzini, as if the older man might suddenly attack him for bringing it.
Mazzini looked up at the young man and smiled, “Thank you, you may go.” The messenger paused and Mazzini looked back up at him, “Yes?”
“Sir, is it true that the Austrians will march on us? Can the general stop them?”
“They may yes, but we can hope they will not, as to whether my friend can defeat them… well this is to be seen. You must believe that we can though, or we have already lost. Freedom is a precious thing young man, it may take much time and much blood, but Italy will be free from these foreigners and united as it should be.”
“Thank you sir, I hope so.” He smiled and headed for the door.

Mazzini turned his attention to the letter, drawing an opener from his table to break the seal.

My dear Mazzini,

I hope this letter find you well. I am in good health, but I must be frank, the army begins to falter. The Austrians pursue us continually; they have more men, better weapons, fresh horses, and guns. We receive little rest and the constant marches drain our strength.

Without reinforcement or supply, I fear we can do little to defeat the Austrians. I will endeavor to do all that I can to hold things together here, but you must bring us aid, and quickly, or I fear all will be lost.
​

Mazzini laid the letter down on his desk with a sigh, turned aside and began to scribble out his own message.

 

[ChaosNDiscord]

The Foreign Perspective:

The vast majority of Catholics in France supported the Pope, however even they felt that the Pope’s harsh reaction and call for murder of the revolutionaries was extreme. In Paris, most of the papers condemned the Pope, reminding the people of the reason for the revolt in the first place: to overthrow a ruler that did not respect or care for the will of the people. In the conservative papers, the Pope was mildly rebuked as well, but his calls for a crusade and harsh punishment were explained away as overreactions and should not have been taken so literally.

In all papers alarm was expressed over the rapidity of Austrian gains in Italy, and fears of Austrian hegemony over Italy quickly began to spread. For Austria to gain control of peninsula would drastically alter the European balance of power. The papers cried out for France to intervene, not necessarily to restore the various states of Italy, but to force Austria out.

In the government, Cavaignac led his cabinet in discussion of options and consultation with Britain and Prussia. Feelers had been offered out to Russia as well, but that state supported Austria and had no active interest in Italy, so little help was expected from their Russian counterparts.

Prussia, largely non-catholic but also fairly conservative had little care for the fate of the Italians, however the aggrandizement of Austria was a matter of great concern to the north German nation. Still they were hesitant to offer full support to the French until the will of Britain was ascertained.

British interests under the direction of Lord Palmerston were clear. In the previous war between Austria and Piedmont he had insisted that Austria would take no territory from the Italian kingdom. Now with Austria threatening to overrun all of Italy, Palmerston with a series of brilliant oratories in the House, and viewed by many as the only competent minister in an otherwise incompetent government, was granted nearly complete independence of action regarding Italian affairs…

America remained aloof from the foreign conflicts. The government had recognized the Roman Republic and in papers across the country the Republic found much support. Some had even taken to hailing Garibaldi as the next George Washington, holding his ragtag army together against all odds, constantly eluding the enemy and striking where he could. It made for great press in the states, and the Roman diplomats who had come to America were celebrated by many of the movers and shakers along the east coast. The banquets thrown in New York were particularly lavish and it became quiet the fashion to host a ‘Republican’ dinner, ostensibly to raise money for the cause of Italian independence, but mainly to be seen with these new popular heroes.

 

[ChaosNDiscord]

A Study of the Wars of Italian Unification, James McKenzie, PH.D

November, 1849

With the coming of winter, fighting in the north and in the mountains died down. The Republicans, moved into winter quarters and the Austrians did the same. Aside from a few small skirmishes amongst scouts no major moves were made in the beginning of the month.

On November 17th, representatives from France, Prussia, and Great Britain met with leaders of the Republic in Rome and with Prince Felix of Schwarzenburg, the new Foreign Minister of Austria. Schwarzenburg was still considered something of a cad by the British ambassador for the man’s affair with Jane Digby and he did not get on well with the Prince. Schwarzenburg was also not loved by the French ambassador, for the man’s part in aiding Radetzky in suppressing the Italian revolt in the north of Italy. While the ambassador didn’t much care about Italian nationalism, he cared greatly about Austria domination of Italy and the potential threat it would cause to France. Prussia was also moving steadily into an anti-Austrian stance for Austria’s continual interference with Prussia’s efforts to replace the collapsed German Confederation with a new confederation centered on Prussia.

Meanwhile in middle Italy, the Republican Army took advantage of a series of mild winter days to escape the mountains and move south. Several hundred men were left behind to man the camps and keep up the illusion that the Italian army was still in quarters while the main force, through a series of rapid forced marches quickly moved into Naples.

There, Garibaldi joined with local revolutionaries who continued to fight against Ferdinand II, king of the Two Sicilies. Ferdinand had by this time completely abandoned Sicily. The efforts of the previous year to start pushing back that revolt were reversed when Naples rose up. A majority of the troops on the island were returned to the mainland, most transported to the loyalist bastions of Taranto, Gaeta (where the Pope still resided in self-imposed exile), and Calabria on the mainland, and Messina in Sicily which, well fortified, still held out.

Garibaldi moved his troops first to Taranto where the majority of the army of King Ferdinand awaited. In a series of daring and bold maneuvers he drew out the army, flanked it and then drove it to destruction, interposing his own troops between the army and the safety of the walls of Taranto. Their troops scattered and the city now under defended, Ferdinand and his court fled into exile in Austria.

Following the exile of Ferdinand, Messina capitulated and was taken by Sicilian forces while the troops who had defended the city were paroled. Remarkably, the revolutionary armies were well disciplined and little in the way of looting occurred. Ruggeru Septimu who presided as President of Sicily and would later become governor and then senator attributed this to the “Knowledge that we fought not against those in the city, but to free them. Thus when our troops entered it was with a mixture of relief and joy, not of vengeance.” Southern Italy, save for Gaeta where the obstinate Pope Pius IX still remained. Garibaldi hurried his army back north, leaving only a screening force to keep the force at Gaeta in check. He knew that as soon as the Austrian realized he had moved south, they would press their attack as quickly as they could, hoping to destroy the republic before the ambassadors could force an end to the conflict.

 

[ChaosNDiscord]

One Last Push, December 18th

The Battle of the Arno River

“Sir, we must pull back, we are outnumbered!” Maggiore Dandolo insisted. “My troops are not trained soldiers, we are militia.”

“Sir, I think the Major is correct, our troops are not disciplined line troops. We should fall back, strike them from hiding and melt away.” Colonnello Manara agreed.

“We cannot. If we do so, the Austrians will continue to come; they are not so far now that if we do not stop them here that they will not reach Rome before the French or British can come to our rescue. If Rome falls, we fall. Do not fool yourself in thinking otherwise.” Generale Garibaldi answered.

“But how can we win?” Manara inquired, sure of the foolishness of this action.

“We do not need to win, only not to lose. We must punch them in the nose, make them pause. If we make them stop, we have won.”

* * * * * * * * *

“Sir! Our scouts report skirmishers near the bridge where you intend to cross.” An aide reported.

“Of course. This whole damned country is rife with spies. Our objective could have been no secret for long.”

“We could still backtrack, make for Firenze…” General-Major von Matiss suggested.

“Firenze means nothing!” Fired back Feldmarschall Radetsky. “The whole revolution comes from Rome. If the fires of revolt and republicanism are extinguished there, they go out across Italy. And thanks to the failure of Furst Lichtenstein to hold the city, we would have to besiege or assault it to reach those bridges. I will not be diverted from my goal!”

“Your orders then Sir?”

“Graf Gyuali’s troops shall lead the way and drive the Italians from the river. Schwarzenburg’s brigade will follow. Oberst von Alemann will take his battalion east to the crossing that our scouts found there."He glanced at von Alemann, I expect you to rejoin us in the afternoon and catch those Italians in the flank,” Radetzky plotted with a smirk before returning his attention to the others. “I want effective cavalry screens on either side of our march and I want our wagons defended. Those damned Italians will not be raiding us again.”

“Yes sir, it shall be done!”

* * * * * * * * *

The sounds of men screaming in agony, muskets firing in anger, and cannon’s roaring in anger filled the air. The Austrians had pushed the Italians across the bridge where they were stubbornly entrenched on the opposite bank. Every attempt to cross had been bloodily repulsed until it became clear, that with the Italian artillery focused on the crossing, every attempt would end in slaughter. Still, it hadn’t all gone the Italian way. The troops on the far bank had suffered great losses, less than half had escaped, most by divining into the river and making their way across.

The Austrians too had attempted this once, but that had been as much as slaughter as their first attempt across the bridge. Some brave troops had made it to the far bank but they were cut down by the Italians in their hastily built trenches.

By early afternoon, the situation was a stalemate. The Austrians could not advance and the Italians could not drive them away. It was in the fading sun of the 18th of December that the fate of the Republic was decided. Von Alemann’s troops, about a thousand strong slammed into the right flank of the Italian position. The flank held momentarily then faltered, troops began to turn and flee as the overwhelming mass of white uniforms overran their defenses.

Supporting this attack another assault was launched from the Austrian side of the bridge, massed infantry charged ahead, climbing over the massed bodies of their comrades and enemies which decorated the bridge. Again in response the Italian guns roared, shots of canister broke the charge coming across the bridge and water while the reserves, Garibaldi’s elite ‘Red Shirts’ counterattacked von Alemann. The Austrians were driven out of the trenches and soon the cannons were directed at their forces. With the attack by the main army having been blunted, von Alemann was left to face the mass of the entire right wing and reserve of the Italians. The cavalry, having been unused until this point and seeing the Austrian flankers wavering and starting to fall back, charged. Within minutes the Austrian detachment was overrun. The few that were not cut down or captured in retreat successfully swam the river or escaped into the forests. Of the thousand men under von Alemann, less than two hundred made it back to Austrian line; von Alemann himself was shot and killed while trying to rally his troops.

Realizing that though they had halted the Austrians for the moment his army had expended its strength, Garibaldi turned his guns on the bridge. The structure already weakened did not hold out long under the barrage. As the struts were eaten away by the cannonballs, the bridge finally collapsed under its own weight, dumping hundred of dead and wounded men into the river below.


* * * * * * * * *
“Sir, orders.”

“I can imagine what they are,” Radetsky sighed, sitting slumped in a chair behind the desk set up in his command tent.

“I have no idea sir; I am only delivering the note.” Oberst Wratislaw observed.

“Very well, hand it over.” Radetsky ordered, waving his hand and taking the note as Wratislaw held it out. Radetsky opened the envelope and read briefly, nodding to himself and letting out another sigh. “Summon von Schoenhals, and send a messenger to the Italians. We will ask for a truce so that we may withdraw from their republic.”

“And why von Schoenhals?”

“Because Wratislaw, it is his army now. I am being recalled to Vienna.”

 

[Jimbrock]

Interesting, though I find the whole multiple-wins-against-all-odds a bit unlikely. Will all liberated Italy now unite under Mazzini's constitution?

 

[ChaosNDiscord]

Yeah, actually I had considered describing more of the battles, including the ones in which the Italians were defeated, but I just didn't want to get bogged down in the minutae of the 1st war.

And well, you'll see. I'll have another update in the next two days. I have a plan really, but translating the plan into words takes me a bit of time, unfortunately.

 

[ChaosNDiscord]

Rome, March 17th, 1850

Mazzini stood on the balcony of what was now being called the presidential mansion, below in the streets, thousands of Italian citizens cheered his appearance. ‘Italian!’ he thought, ‘Not Romans, not Florentines, or Neapolitans, but Italians!’ He could not help but smile or hide the tears of joy that began to leak from the corners of his eyes. The dreams of hundreds, thousands, or maybe more of his kinsmen were to be realized today.

He raised his hands and the roar from the crowd began to subside, allowing him to speak, “My dearest countrymen,” he began the emotion in his voice plain for all those who could hear, and a thunderous roar stopped him as he spoke the word ‘countrymen’. “My dearest countrymen, finally, finally after so many years, over the course of centuries we are as one.” Again, the applause and shouts of joy drowned out his words. “It is true, parts of our land remain under the yoke of foreigners, our brothers and sisters awaiting Italy to come to their aid and bring them into its embrace. But we must not let our passions run too hot!”

“We must remember that only through peace can we feel secure. God has seen fit to grant us our land, our country as cradle, and humanity as mother; we cannot rightly love the brethren of our cradle unless we too love the common mother. We will strive to peacefully unite the last of our nation and to maintain good relations with our neighbors. Italy shall again be the guiding light of Europe. Once we led the way for Europe out of the darkness of the middle ages, and again we shall lead Europe out of the evil of oppression, hatred, fear, and war.”

“Though we not so long ago were of different nations, now, we are one. We must remember that despite our differences whether we come from Sicily or Piedmont, Sardinia or Ferrara, that above all, we are Italians, and that we should love one another. For Italy is not some mere territory, the territory is only the foundation. Italy is the idea which rests upon that foundation; it is the sentiment of love, of fellowship, which binds together all the sons and daughters of our nation.”

“To our neighbors I say this; from Italy you have little need for fear, we only desire peace and the freedom to seek our own place in the world. To Austria specifically I must reiterate, though we have recently fought, it was merely in the defense of our liberty; liberty from the shackles of oppression with which you sought to rebind us. Though you still unlawfully control Italian lands and oppress Italian peoples, we seek a peaceful solution to our differences.”

“However, I warn our enemies, though we desire peace, you will not find our nation unprepared to defend itself. Our armies will defend our sacred land with the hearts of the ancient Roman legions, our navy will defend our coasts to the last, and should God not grant our armies victory on the field, every man, woman, and child would pick up arms against an invader, for it is better to die than to allow the light of our nation be extinguished.”

“And my friends, so long as we are prepared to fight, to die for Italy and liberty, our nation will be from this day forward, immortal!” as he finished, a great cheer erupted from the gathered crowd. People hugged one another, strangers embracing, men wept openly, unashamed of their tears, for the 17th of March was the official birth of the Republic of Italy.

** I apologize to Mazzini for using several actual quotes of his, though paraphrased, in this speech.

 

[LordKalvan]

Nice TL. Which regions are now included in the Italian Republic? Is the pope still holed up in Gaeta or has been evacuated by a Catholic power (Spain or Austria: I don't think that the French want to touch this hot potato ITTL)?

I do hope that some sensible heads have joined Mazzini (who was not a great organizer, and had an unfortunate habit of picking up fights with his closest advisers): I'm mostly thinking of Carlo Cattaneo,

You never said what happened in the North: is Venice still holding?

 

[ChaosNDiscord]

Thank you. The Republic currently comprises all of Italy (including Nice & Savoy) minus Lombardy and Venetia (including the city of Venice). As in OTL Venice held out until the end of 49, in the end it couldn't resist the seige forever. I'll include some follow up on this in my next update.

As far as the Pope, well, for now he still holds out in the little fortress at Gaeta under the 'protection' of Republican troops which do not, and can not enter the fortress (not without bloodshed anyway). As far as what will happen to the Pope, that is still coming up. And no, though much of France is Catholic, as in OTL the Republican offer to the Pope (free reign in the Vatican and a yearly stipend for administration) is more than generous, but in TTL without a government utterly dependent on conservative support, the French have no interest in invasion. Though if the Pope were killed, that would probably change, hence the reason there has been no move against him in Gaeta.

Mazzini is still ATM only one member (though the most important) of the ruling triumvate, official elections are to be held shortly, though until then Mazzini does also hold the title of President of the Italian Republic.

 

[ChaosNDiscord]

A Study of the Wars of Italian Unification, James McKenzie, PH.D

The Aftermath of the First War of Italian Unification

The first war unified the bulk of Italy, though great disparity remained between the different states of the Italian republic. Though the new state was still quite weak, it had survived its birth rather than dying stillborn before the ideas of the republic could take hold. Austria in the meantime licked its wounds and settled in, brutally suppressing any agitation for unification. Unfortunately for the Italians, the peace forced upon Austria allowed the Empire to retain its Italian possessions while, with the insistence of Lord Palmerston, allowed the remainder of Italy to choose their own course. Within the next few months the ‘free’ republics all joined the Roman Republic to form the new united Italy. Venice, though it managed for nearly two years to resist Austrian military might, finally succumbed in January, 1850.

As for the Pope, he continued to hold out in Gaeta, barricaded in his small fortress and insisting that he was still the ruler of Rome. While there were a few sympathetic ears, the Republic’s offer of autonomy under the Pope for the Holy See and an annual payment for upkeep was seen as more than generous and the Pope’s continued call for his restoration went unheeded. Finally in May of 1850, Pope Pius IX left Gaeta with his guards and retinue and ‘temporarily’, though it would be for the rest of his lifetime, settled into a new palace in Trieste.

As for Italy itself, its Constitution proved to be one of the most forward and progressive of those in the world. It guaranteed the vote to all men aged 21 and older, guaranteed the right of religious liberty and recognized the Pope as head of the Catholic Church, in addition guaranteed was a free public education for all citizens, and the abolition of the death penalty. The government was structured similarly to the United States of America, from whose Constitution much inspiration was drawn. The executive power rested in a popularly elected President and Vice-President who served a five year term and could be re-elected, but not consecutively. The Legislative branch was divided into a Senate whose members were elected in a first-past-the-post fashion and served six year terms, and a lower house known as the Assembly which was filled by proportional vote for various regions and served two year terms. The Judicial branch, like the American was appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate.

The first election, held in June of 1850 elected a number of prominent Republicans, who dominated the legislature, and a handful of moderates and conservatives. There had been much speculation as to who would take the Presidency, Mazzini, who was known as the ‘Soul of the Revolution’ and who helped organize the Republic, or Garibaldi, whose army had so valiantly defended her. Before the issue could come to a vote, Garibaldi himself declared that he was no candidate and that if elected he would not serve. His calling, he felt, was to finish the task of reunification, the task of running the country belong to abler hands than his. Without any other challenger who stirred the minds of the average Italian, Mazzini won in a landslide; his only competition was from local figures, none of whom captured more than 6% of the national vote total.

With the Italian nation formed, her liberators now faced a more challenging task, administering her.