When mass education hits, who knows what could happen. 'Spanish' could go along the French model were it relegates all other Iberian languages to being local dialects at best.
Portuguese America and Southern Africa the Redux
- Thread starter Viriato
- Start date
When mass education hits, who knows what could happen. 'Spanish' could go along the French model were it relegates all other Iberian languages to being local dialects at best.
If Portugal is successful enough, mass education may never hit. I don't see why it would. What does it help ? It's very inefficient, really, given the expense involved. It might work better to encourage free day schools, as the Jesuits frequently used to run, for bourgeois youths. But most craft skills and business, law, etc., can be learned on the job. Mass education seems to be more of an instrument of social control than an actual benefit to the common weal.
In any case, if there is a time when it is highly beneficial, that time is fleeting. The law of diminishing returns seems to be especially strong here. Suffice it to say, modernity would be significantly different if the Portuguese are as demographically and economically successful as in this TL. Our past 250 years are essentially the story of English ideas triumphing everywhere and being introduced as local domesticated strains in various nations. Say that penicillin is never discovered or fossil fuels are never used for mass production (something that wouldn't make as much sense unless one had a colonial economic model like the English) -- modernity would be completely unrecognisable.
Even so, it's so unimaginable, I don't think anybody on AH has ever done a timeline based on it (no industrial revolution, no triumph of the rationalist philosophy, no Newtonian physics, but a steady stream of inventions in the Renaissance spirit). Too difficult, probably, and too much opposed to the prevailing prejudices.
Malacca and the Indies
Malaca
In 1511, the Portuguese managed to conquer Malaca on the Malay Peninsula, driving away its sultan and capturing the most important trading port of the region. Here the Portuguese were able to take control of the tin trade, and would extend their holdings in the region throughout the next century, including to Cabo Rachado. In addition, in 1525, the Portuguese established a fortress Northern Sumatra. Afterwards, the Portuguese sought to rid the region of remnants of the Malaca Sultanate, with Bintam captured in 1526, seeing it as a threat to Malaca's commercial dominance. The most significant threat came with the rise of the Sultanate of Aceh in Northern Sumatra. In the early 17th century the Sultanate was at its peak, and would invade Malaya itself. This led to Spain allying itself with the Sultanate of Johor in 1613. Despite this, Acehenese power in the region continued to expand until 1629 when a combined Spanish-Johor force destroyed Aceh's navy and killed 19,000 of its men at Malaca. However, Spain's alliance with Johor did not come without a cost, as Riau soon eclipsed Malaca.
Java
In 1512, the declining Hindu Kingdom of Sunda dominated western Java along with Southern Sumatra and its king sought an alliance with the Portuguese, sending envoys to Malaca. The Sundanese King offered the Portuguese a monopoly in the pepper trade in return for an alliance. However, distracted by events in India, the Portuguese failed to assist Sunda, and the kingdom fell to the Muslim states of Cirebon and Dema, and was completely wiped from the map by 1579. However, as Spanish power grew in the region, so did their goal to dominate the Javanese pepper trade. To that end in 1599, the Spanish forced Bantam to agree to a Spanish fort in Bantam, and in 1602 another fort was built at Calapa (Sunda Kelapa), now called Jayakarta (Jakarta), where a Portuguese stone marker from 1522 was still present. However, when it was found that Bantam had allowed French and Danish traders to trade at Jayakarta, the Spanish seized the land and fortified the post, renaming it Porto de Espanha (Port of Spain). This would result with an attack on the Spanish by the Sultanates of Mataram and Cirebon, which would ultimately lead to a war over the dominance of Java for much of the 17th century.
Moluccas
The centre of the Spanish Empire in the region was the Spice Islands, otherwise known as the Moluccas. When the Portuguese first reached the islands in 1512, they established themselves in Ambon, after having taken over the island from Ternate, however conflict with Ternate ensued until 1606, when the Sultan of Ternate was imprisoned and sent to Malaca. Afterwards, the Spanish fort was rebuilt, with the island being directly annexed to the Spanish crown. In the Sultanate of Tidore, the Spanish had been allowed to establish forts, but the sultan distrusted the Spaniards, and would retain a degree of independence into the 18th century, often allowing rival European ships to trade, breaking the Spanish monopoly. In the Banda Islands the Spanish established control in 1612-1613 and began importing slaves to cultivate nutmeg. Nearby, in Macáçar (Makassar) the Spanish built a fort and a large number of creoles lived around that port, which was still ruled by the Sultan of Makassar.
Lesser Sundas
By the 17th century a thriving sandalwood trade between China and Timor in the Lesser Sundas developed. Here, a large number Portuguese mestiços known as Topases were only under nominal suzerainty of the Estado da India. There were Portuguese forts in Solor, Flores (Larantuca) and Timor (Cupang), but these were relatively unimportant. The arrival of Dominican missionaries in 1516 and especially during the second half of the 17th century would assist in the conversion of the majority of the tribes in the archipelago to Roman Catholicism. Despite their at times strained relationship with the Spanish Crown, the islanders would prove their loyalty in fighting off foreign attacks, and serving as soldiers in the Spanish forces.
Malaca
In 1511, the Portuguese managed to conquer Malaca on the Malay Peninsula, driving away its sultan and capturing the most important trading port of the region. Here the Portuguese were able to take control of the tin trade, and would extend their holdings in the region throughout the next century, including to Cabo Rachado. In addition, in 1525, the Portuguese established a fortress Northern Sumatra. Afterwards, the Portuguese sought to rid the region of remnants of the Malaca Sultanate, with Bintam captured in 1526, seeing it as a threat to Malaca's commercial dominance. The most significant threat came with the rise of the Sultanate of Aceh in Northern Sumatra. In the early 17th century the Sultanate was at its peak, and would invade Malaya itself. This led to Spain allying itself with the Sultanate of Johor in 1613. Despite this, Acehenese power in the region continued to expand until 1629 when a combined Spanish-Johor force destroyed Aceh's navy and killed 19,000 of its men at Malaca. However, Spain's alliance with Johor did not come without a cost, as Riau soon eclipsed Malaca.
Java
In 1512, the declining Hindu Kingdom of Sunda dominated western Java along with Southern Sumatra and its king sought an alliance with the Portuguese, sending envoys to Malaca. The Sundanese King offered the Portuguese a monopoly in the pepper trade in return for an alliance. However, distracted by events in India, the Portuguese failed to assist Sunda, and the kingdom fell to the Muslim states of Cirebon and Dema, and was completely wiped from the map by 1579. However, as Spanish power grew in the region, so did their goal to dominate the Javanese pepper trade. To that end in 1599, the Spanish forced Bantam to agree to a Spanish fort in Bantam, and in 1602 another fort was built at Calapa (Sunda Kelapa), now called Jayakarta (Jakarta), where a Portuguese stone marker from 1522 was still present. However, when it was found that Bantam had allowed French and Danish traders to trade at Jayakarta, the Spanish seized the land and fortified the post, renaming it Porto de Espanha (Port of Spain). This would result with an attack on the Spanish by the Sultanates of Mataram and Cirebon, which would ultimately lead to a war over the dominance of Java for much of the 17th century.
Moluccas
The centre of the Spanish Empire in the region was the Spice Islands, otherwise known as the Moluccas. When the Portuguese first reached the islands in 1512, they established themselves in Ambon, after having taken over the island from Ternate, however conflict with Ternate ensued until 1606, when the Sultan of Ternate was imprisoned and sent to Malaca. Afterwards, the Spanish fort was rebuilt, with the island being directly annexed to the Spanish crown. In the Sultanate of Tidore, the Spanish had been allowed to establish forts, but the sultan distrusted the Spaniards, and would retain a degree of independence into the 18th century, often allowing rival European ships to trade, breaking the Spanish monopoly. In the Banda Islands the Spanish established control in 1612-1613 and began importing slaves to cultivate nutmeg. Nearby, in Macáçar (Makassar) the Spanish built a fort and a large number of creoles lived around that port, which was still ruled by the Sultan of Makassar.
Lesser Sundas
By the 17th century a thriving sandalwood trade between China and Timor in the Lesser Sundas developed. Here, a large number Portuguese mestiços known as Topases were only under nominal suzerainty of the Estado da India. There were Portuguese forts in Solor, Flores (Larantuca) and Timor (Cupang), but these were relatively unimportant. The arrival of Dominican missionaries in 1516 and especially during the second half of the 17th century would assist in the conversion of the majority of the tribes in the archipelago to Roman Catholicism. Despite their at times strained relationship with the Spanish Crown, the islanders would prove their loyalty in fighting off foreign attacks, and serving as soldiers in the Spanish forces.
China and Japan
Macau
In the early 16th century, the Portuguese had reached what had been one of their primary objectives, China. The Portuguese had sought to export the riches of China to Europe, including silk, porcelain, and other luxury goods. However, China remained a relatively closed off market, with the Ming being suspicious of foreigners. However, the Spanish would have a moment of good fortune. As a result of increasing piracy, in 1555, the Ming banned direct trade with Japan. Hoping to curry favour with the Chinese, the Spanish assisted the local Chinese authorities in combating piracy in the region. In 1557, the Spanish were rewarded by being granted the right to establish themselves on a tiny peninsula at the entrance of the Pearl River called Aomen, or Macau in Portuguese.
The acquisition of Macau gave Spain direct access to the Chinese market, something that no other European power would possess. Silk, porcelain and tea was exported in return for silver from Japan and the new world. This eventually led to a triangular trade with Manila, as it served as an essential way station between America and China, allowing the silver laden galleons anchor in Manila. From there, Chinese merchants were responsible for carrying the trade to Macau and other ports, with Spanish "cartazes" being sold for safe passage.
JAPAN
In 1543, the Portuguese became the first Europeans to arrive in Japan. Though they aimed to trade with the Japanese, their arrival was followed by the first Jesuits from Navarre had founded their first mission in Japan in 1549. With the closure of direct trade between China and Japan, the Spanish began to fulfil the role of middlemen by exporting Chinese silk to Japan in return for silver. This trade boomed, and it became some of the most lucrative in the Spanish Empire. However, as the Jesuit presence in Japan grew, it would strain relations between Spain and Japan.
Over 100,000 Japanese had been converted to Roman Catholicism, and this was resented by the ruling elite. By the 1580s and 1590s conflicts between Hiyedoshi and the Jesuits finally reached a boiling point when in 1597 Hiyedoshi had several Jesuit missionaries executed. This culminated with the expulsion of the missionaries from Japan in 1614. A great number of priests were executed, and Christians persecuted, but trade continued apace.
Trade with Macau increased to such an extent, that Macau was granted its own Captain-General in 1623. Trade between Macau and Manila also flourished.
It was not only Spanish merchants involved in the trade, as Japanese merchants settled in settlements at Macau, Macassar, Luzon in addition to Siam and Formosa. However in 1633 Japanese subjects and Japanese vessels were forbidden to leave Japan without license, and in 1635 Japanese who made their residence abroad for over five years were subject to death. This was followed in 1636 by an edict forcing the Spanish to relocate all trade to the island of Deshima, in Nagasaki, greatly limiting their movements, and contacts with Japan.
However, a limited trade between the two nations would continue as no other European power had commenced trading in the region. The Japanese continued to import Chinese wares from Spanish ships in return for silver, however this would peak in 1660. Copper, and gold soon began to replace silver as the leading exports from Japan, and the trade would never reach the same importance as it did at its peak during the first half of the 17th century.
St. Paul's Cathedral Macau
Macau
In the early 16th century, the Portuguese had reached what had been one of their primary objectives, China. The Portuguese had sought to export the riches of China to Europe, including silk, porcelain, and other luxury goods. However, China remained a relatively closed off market, with the Ming being suspicious of foreigners. However, the Spanish would have a moment of good fortune. As a result of increasing piracy, in 1555, the Ming banned direct trade with Japan. Hoping to curry favour with the Chinese, the Spanish assisted the local Chinese authorities in combating piracy in the region. In 1557, the Spanish were rewarded by being granted the right to establish themselves on a tiny peninsula at the entrance of the Pearl River called Aomen, or Macau in Portuguese.
The acquisition of Macau gave Spain direct access to the Chinese market, something that no other European power would possess. Silk, porcelain and tea was exported in return for silver from Japan and the new world. This eventually led to a triangular trade with Manila, as it served as an essential way station between America and China, allowing the silver laden galleons anchor in Manila. From there, Chinese merchants were responsible for carrying the trade to Macau and other ports, with Spanish "cartazes" being sold for safe passage.
JAPAN
In 1543, the Portuguese became the first Europeans to arrive in Japan. Though they aimed to trade with the Japanese, their arrival was followed by the first Jesuits from Navarre had founded their first mission in Japan in 1549. With the closure of direct trade between China and Japan, the Spanish began to fulfil the role of middlemen by exporting Chinese silk to Japan in return for silver. This trade boomed, and it became some of the most lucrative in the Spanish Empire. However, as the Jesuit presence in Japan grew, it would strain relations between Spain and Japan.
Over 100,000 Japanese had been converted to Roman Catholicism, and this was resented by the ruling elite. By the 1580s and 1590s conflicts between Hiyedoshi and the Jesuits finally reached a boiling point when in 1597 Hiyedoshi had several Jesuit missionaries executed. This culminated with the expulsion of the missionaries from Japan in 1614. A great number of priests were executed, and Christians persecuted, but trade continued apace.
Trade with Macau increased to such an extent, that Macau was granted its own Captain-General in 1623. Trade between Macau and Manila also flourished.
It was not only Spanish merchants involved in the trade, as Japanese merchants settled in settlements at Macau, Macassar, Luzon in addition to Siam and Formosa. However in 1633 Japanese subjects and Japanese vessels were forbidden to leave Japan without license, and in 1635 Japanese who made their residence abroad for over five years were subject to death. This was followed in 1636 by an edict forcing the Spanish to relocate all trade to the island of Deshima, in Nagasaki, greatly limiting their movements, and contacts with Japan.
However, a limited trade between the two nations would continue as no other European power had commenced trading in the region. The Japanese continued to import Chinese wares from Spanish ships in return for silver, however this would peak in 1660. Copper, and gold soon began to replace silver as the leading exports from Japan, and the trade would never reach the same importance as it did at its peak during the first half of the 17th century.
St. Paul's Cathedral Macau
War in Europe 1610
In 1610 the last Duke of Julich, Cleves and Berg died and leaving the ruling house without an heir and the ruling line extinct. Emperor Philip II, quickly asserted the Habsburg claim to these strategic territories. With this addition, the Habsburgs were now in complete control of north-western Germany and the Netherlands. However, this move was opposed by the rulers of Palatinate and Brunswick who had their own claims to the duchies. They in turn were backed by the Kingdom of Denmark-Sweden, an elector of the Holy Roman Empire whose king was opposed to the expanding Habsburg control over Germany.
The French also opposed Habsburg expansion and were quick to assure the Danes and the two smaller German states of their assistance. Though France was racked by its own internal divisions, King Louis knew that he could not let Habsburg expansion go unchecked. Emperor Philip II on the other hand sought to unite the Holy Roman Empire under his rule. He hoped that a united empire would be able to assist his cousin the King of Bohemia and Hungary in dealing with the Ottoman threat.
To the south, the Duchy of Savoy was now in a personal union with England, under King Charles I, who more interested in expanding his Savoyard lands, than in England. He hoped to use France's distractions in Germany to invade the former Savoy territory of Geneva. Geneva had become the centre of heresy in Europe and Charles appealed to the Pope for aid, to that end in 1610 papal troops and English troops invaded Geneva. What ensued was a massacre of thousands of heretic reformers, many of whom had fled from France. Though the French were content that the English had stamped out this hotbed of reformers, who had been causing so much trouble in France, they opposed English expansion. To that end, France invaded the Duchy of Savoy in 1611, and England and France were at war once again.
King Charles had been preparing for war, and had undertaken naval expansion, particularly the construction of several galleons in the Mediterranean, with Vilafranca de Mar, next to Nizza as a base. The king was also religious zealot, and he hoped to use the navy to attack the Ottoman Empire. He used this fleet to help protect the Venetian possessions in Eastern Mediterranean from Ottoman attack, Cyprus, and to assist the Knights of Rhodes. In reality, the English began using Cyprus for privateering, attacking the coastal regions of the Ottoman Empire, and particularly harassing shipping from Egypt to Syria.
In Eastern Europe, Poland-Lithuania and Denmark-Sweden had been locked in a battle for the control of Russia and Livonia. The Kalmar Union had managed to win, acquiring most of Livonia after the secularisation of the Teutonic Knights. Denmark-Sweden had managed to remove the Polish pretender to the Russian throne, thwarting Poland's expansionist ambitions in the East. Both Poland-Lithuania and the Duchy of Prussia sought to divide Livonia and were courted by the Habsburgs as allies.
Both sides now sought to involve Spain, however the French were eager to at least maintain Spain neutral. The French were not willing to fight a two-front war, and the Spanish king was against involving his realms in another costly war, as silver from the Americas had begun to decline. The French also courted Scotland to attack England and the Ottomans to invade Habsburg-ruled Hungary. The stage was being set for one of the Europe's longest and bloodiest wars.
Holy Roman Emperor Philip II
In 1610 the last Duke of Julich, Cleves and Berg died and leaving the ruling house without an heir and the ruling line extinct. Emperor Philip II, quickly asserted the Habsburg claim to these strategic territories. With this addition, the Habsburgs were now in complete control of north-western Germany and the Netherlands. However, this move was opposed by the rulers of Palatinate and Brunswick who had their own claims to the duchies. They in turn were backed by the Kingdom of Denmark-Sweden, an elector of the Holy Roman Empire whose king was opposed to the expanding Habsburg control over Germany.
The French also opposed Habsburg expansion and were quick to assure the Danes and the two smaller German states of their assistance. Though France was racked by its own internal divisions, King Louis knew that he could not let Habsburg expansion go unchecked. Emperor Philip II on the other hand sought to unite the Holy Roman Empire under his rule. He hoped that a united empire would be able to assist his cousin the King of Bohemia and Hungary in dealing with the Ottoman threat.
To the south, the Duchy of Savoy was now in a personal union with England, under King Charles I, who more interested in expanding his Savoyard lands, than in England. He hoped to use France's distractions in Germany to invade the former Savoy territory of Geneva. Geneva had become the centre of heresy in Europe and Charles appealed to the Pope for aid, to that end in 1610 papal troops and English troops invaded Geneva. What ensued was a massacre of thousands of heretic reformers, many of whom had fled from France. Though the French were content that the English had stamped out this hotbed of reformers, who had been causing so much trouble in France, they opposed English expansion. To that end, France invaded the Duchy of Savoy in 1611, and England and France were at war once again.
King Charles had been preparing for war, and had undertaken naval expansion, particularly the construction of several galleons in the Mediterranean, with Vilafranca de Mar, next to Nizza as a base. The king was also religious zealot, and he hoped to use the navy to attack the Ottoman Empire. He used this fleet to help protect the Venetian possessions in Eastern Mediterranean from Ottoman attack, Cyprus, and to assist the Knights of Rhodes. In reality, the English began using Cyprus for privateering, attacking the coastal regions of the Ottoman Empire, and particularly harassing shipping from Egypt to Syria.
In Eastern Europe, Poland-Lithuania and Denmark-Sweden had been locked in a battle for the control of Russia and Livonia. The Kalmar Union had managed to win, acquiring most of Livonia after the secularisation of the Teutonic Knights. Denmark-Sweden had managed to remove the Polish pretender to the Russian throne, thwarting Poland's expansionist ambitions in the East. Both Poland-Lithuania and the Duchy of Prussia sought to divide Livonia and were courted by the Habsburgs as allies.
Both sides now sought to involve Spain, however the French were eager to at least maintain Spain neutral. The French were not willing to fight a two-front war, and the Spanish king was against involving his realms in another costly war, as silver from the Americas had begun to decline. The French also courted Scotland to attack England and the Ottomans to invade Habsburg-ruled Hungary. The stage was being set for one of the Europe's longest and bloodiest wars.
Holy Roman Emperor Philip II
A two for one today, today was a good day. It seems as though the best thing Spain could do is sit out this war. But I'd be surprised if they don't; there's little chance the Spanish have given up on dreams of toppling the Turks. What'll be the goal this time, Cyprus or Jerusalem? They don't really have any conflicts with the HRE/Austria to the best of my knowledge, so going to war against the French-Ottoman alliance seems likely. Here's hoping things go well for them.
Who has the Palaiologos and Lusignan claims in this TL ? They were quite important in OTL, being used as a potential casus belli many times against the Turks.
Also, how were religious observance and fervour affected in this TL ? Is there an equivalent to the Counter-Reformation ?
Also, how were religious observance and fervour affected in this TL ? Is there an equivalent to the Counter-Reformation ?
Protestantism in Europe
The Habsburg invasion of the Papal States by Charles V in 1526, along with the ensuing schism, lasting until 1540 greatly weakened the power of the papacy all over in Europe. The various monarchs in Europe, asserted their own power over the church, with most rulers having achieved the power to appoint church hierarchy in their respective realms, giving them the power of the pope. The effect of this was an increase of royal power, a trend that would continue throughout the 17th century. In many cases, this increasing power was opposed by the nobility. They along with the bourgeois, began embrace the reformed churches in various parts of Europe.
In various Swiss cantons, the reformers found a safe haven, particularly in Bern and Geneva. Geneva soon became a centre of reformist literature in the French language. In 1559, the Geneva Academy was established to teach reformist clergy, and the majority of its students were in fact French. As a result, in the second half of the 17th century, the number of reformed churches increased in France, with nearly half of the nobility abandoning the Catholic Church. The reformed church appealed to the bourgeoisie and urban working class as well, however this was limited to members of the literate trades. As a result, it remained a distinctively urban phenomenon however, with few peasants converting. The peasantry remained notoriously conservative and suspicious of the nobility, and therefore tended to remain with its traditional church. The region of Cevennes remained the sole exception to this rule. In France, the reformed churches thrived in the south and west, mostly in the areas far from Paris, and the royal court. These were the areas of France with their own parlements (judicial courts) and legal codes, which in effect curbed the king's power.
In Paris, there were few converts to the reformed churches as the clergy supported the king, often encouraging violence against heretics. The French Catholic Church also began sending Jesuits around the country in an attempt to stamp out Protestantism. Despite this, by 1600 an estimated 10% of France's population was Protestant and there were over 1,000 reformed churches throughout the country. With increasing anti-Protestant violence, the Protestant nobility began plotting a revolt, including the assassination attempt of the King Louis XIII in 1598, however this failed. With his successor King Henry III, remaining childless, upon his death they hoped to support a pro-reform candidate. However, it would be the the Duc de Guise, a staunch Catholic who became Charles IX. However, he did tolerate the Protestants during his reign, but this was mainly because he was embroiled in war. However, their position would worsen, with many emigrating to Switzerland, and others converting to Roman Catholicism.
In the Holy Roman Empire, the reformed ideas also made some inroads, particularly amongst the lesser nobles and merchants in Flanders. However, this movement was stalled by the introduction of the Jesuits to the country. In addition, the movement's association with the French caused many Protestants to be suspected of being traitors. What ultimately doomed the cause, however would be the radical reformers. These were open air preachers in Brussels who stirred up riots and encouraged mobs to destroy icons in churches. This made the nobles particularly nervous, and many preferred to work with the Emperor to suppress the movement. Additionally, in some other states, the teachings of Luther had been incorporated into many of the churches, as the church hierarchy was now controlled by rulers. Finally, after 1526, most of the church-ruled lands had been mediatised and divided amongst the rulers and nobles of the Holy Roman Empire. As this had been sanctioned by the Habsburg-appointed Pope, it reinforced the support for the now largely powerless Catholic Church, as a tool of governance.
The other region in the Holy Roman Empire where Protestantism made inroads was in Bohemia, a place where schismatic movements had been prevalent. Hungary too, became a place where Protestants became numerous, many of these having been refugees from Germany. As the kingdom had been depopulated by wars with the Ottomans, they were granted religious freedom so long as they remained loyal to the Habsburg King.
In Poland-Lithuania many of the nobles joined the reformed church as they hoped to weaken royal power. The king wanted to expand his royal power, but at the same time had to play a delicate balancing act, as the country's nobility remained a powerful force, especially during times of war. Therefore, the Protestants were tolerated, and Poland soon began attracting Protestant refugees from all over Europe, many of whom were skilled craftsmen and artisans, leading a cultural and economic renaissance in Poland. However, the counter-reformation was extremely active with the Jesuits being particularly numerous. The result being, that the Protestant sects failed to attract many of the peasants.
A riot against icons in a church in Flanders
The Habsburg invasion of the Papal States by Charles V in 1526, along with the ensuing schism, lasting until 1540 greatly weakened the power of the papacy all over in Europe. The various monarchs in Europe, asserted their own power over the church, with most rulers having achieved the power to appoint church hierarchy in their respective realms, giving them the power of the pope. The effect of this was an increase of royal power, a trend that would continue throughout the 17th century. In many cases, this increasing power was opposed by the nobility. They along with the bourgeois, began embrace the reformed churches in various parts of Europe.
In various Swiss cantons, the reformers found a safe haven, particularly in Bern and Geneva. Geneva soon became a centre of reformist literature in the French language. In 1559, the Geneva Academy was established to teach reformist clergy, and the majority of its students were in fact French. As a result, in the second half of the 17th century, the number of reformed churches increased in France, with nearly half of the nobility abandoning the Catholic Church. The reformed church appealed to the bourgeoisie and urban working class as well, however this was limited to members of the literate trades. As a result, it remained a distinctively urban phenomenon however, with few peasants converting. The peasantry remained notoriously conservative and suspicious of the nobility, and therefore tended to remain with its traditional church. The region of Cevennes remained the sole exception to this rule. In France, the reformed churches thrived in the south and west, mostly in the areas far from Paris, and the royal court. These were the areas of France with their own parlements (judicial courts) and legal codes, which in effect curbed the king's power.
In Paris, there were few converts to the reformed churches as the clergy supported the king, often encouraging violence against heretics. The French Catholic Church also began sending Jesuits around the country in an attempt to stamp out Protestantism. Despite this, by 1600 an estimated 10% of France's population was Protestant and there were over 1,000 reformed churches throughout the country. With increasing anti-Protestant violence, the Protestant nobility began plotting a revolt, including the assassination attempt of the King Louis XIII in 1598, however this failed. With his successor King Henry III, remaining childless, upon his death they hoped to support a pro-reform candidate. However, it would be the the Duc de Guise, a staunch Catholic who became Charles IX. However, he did tolerate the Protestants during his reign, but this was mainly because he was embroiled in war. However, their position would worsen, with many emigrating to Switzerland, and others converting to Roman Catholicism.
In the Holy Roman Empire, the reformed ideas also made some inroads, particularly amongst the lesser nobles and merchants in Flanders. However, this movement was stalled by the introduction of the Jesuits to the country. In addition, the movement's association with the French caused many Protestants to be suspected of being traitors. What ultimately doomed the cause, however would be the radical reformers. These were open air preachers in Brussels who stirred up riots and encouraged mobs to destroy icons in churches. This made the nobles particularly nervous, and many preferred to work with the Emperor to suppress the movement. Additionally, in some other states, the teachings of Luther had been incorporated into many of the churches, as the church hierarchy was now controlled by rulers. Finally, after 1526, most of the church-ruled lands had been mediatised and divided amongst the rulers and nobles of the Holy Roman Empire. As this had been sanctioned by the Habsburg-appointed Pope, it reinforced the support for the now largely powerless Catholic Church, as a tool of governance.
The other region in the Holy Roman Empire where Protestantism made inroads was in Bohemia, a place where schismatic movements had been prevalent. Hungary too, became a place where Protestants became numerous, many of these having been refugees from Germany. As the kingdom had been depopulated by wars with the Ottomans, they were granted religious freedom so long as they remained loyal to the Habsburg King.
In Poland-Lithuania many of the nobles joined the reformed church as they hoped to weaken royal power. The king wanted to expand his royal power, but at the same time had to play a delicate balancing act, as the country's nobility remained a powerful force, especially during times of war. Therefore, the Protestants were tolerated, and Poland soon began attracting Protestant refugees from all over Europe, many of whom were skilled craftsmen and artisans, leading a cultural and economic renaissance in Poland. However, the counter-reformation was extremely active with the Jesuits being particularly numerous. The result being, that the Protestant sects failed to attract many of the peasants.
A riot against icons in a church in Flanders
North America
Though the wars in Europe would destroy much of the continent's economy, they gave a boost to the economy of North America. The region had previously been seen as a backwater, producing very little of value. Often being described derisively as an icy land of with Flemings and Norwegians. However, visitors from Portugal and other parts of Europe in the 17th century soon began to take notice of the inhabitants of North America. The small spread out settlements in the northern half of the continent grew at a far faster rate than anywhere else in the empire and the inhabitants of the region were taller, healthier and more well fed. The captain of São Lourenço, Rui de Almeida wrote to Lisbon in 1620 describing the inhabitants of the region as men who would make excellent soldiers due to their physical stature. Though the reasons for these differences were unknown at the time, in the northern portions of America the European settlers were spread out on large individual homesteads with plentiful food supplies, including abundant dairy supplies. They married on average ten years younger than in Europe and had far more children, with far lower rates of mortality, once land became scarce, they simply moved west. As a result of this growth, the Captaincies of Nova Navarra & Terra Nova, São Lourenço, São Vicente, Santo António, and Santa Maria had a combined white population of 479,000 by 1660. Though a mixture of Iberian, Scandinavian, Flemish, German and Finnish backgrounds, by the mid-17th century it was noted that most of the inhabitants of the region spoke excellent Portuguese, often better than that spoken in Portugal itself. This might have been attributed to the central role of played by Parish priests who in the largely rural area, provided a pivotal role in society. The priests were usually sent from Portugal, and the church provided what little education was available through its seminaries and convents. They also acted as notaries and would read news from the outside world to the inhabitants. As a result, the parish churches therefore became far more than just places of worship.
Though most of the settlers in the northern part of North America were mostly farmers, living off the sale of grain and timber, the wars of Europe after 1600 would provide the inhabitants of the region with a valuable commodity. Beginning around 1600, the Swedish soldiers at war in Europe made beaver-felt hats popular once more, and the demand for beaver pelts in Europe sky-rocketed. However, with the Kalmar Union in control of the Baltic, Flemish ships could not acquire furs from their traditional source of Russia. A few Hanseatic merchants were able to ship furs to Antwerp, however the supplies were still inadequate, and as result prices began to rise exponentially. In addition, by 1600 the European beaver had been so overhunted that there were not nearly enough to supply the demand. Therefore, demand from Spanish America exploded as the price of a beaver pelt rose from 14 reais in 1600 to 35 in 1633.
The Captaincy of São Lourenço in particular experienced a boom as the furs from the Northern Region were of better quality and fetched higher prices. The settlers here were often subsistence farmers, and the sale of pelts allowed them to acquire additional income. By 1650, around 1,000 European men had ventured north and west to become traders, living amongst the Indians, and often taking Indian wives. They were accompanied by the Jesuits who sought to convert the Indians to Catholicism. However, the latter group often came into conflict with the settlers, as they were often critical of the treatment of the Indians at the hands of the settlers. This would lead to conflict and sporadic violence against the Jesuits, particularly in the remote areas of the interior, where the crown’s authority was nil.
Fur was not the only trade booming in North America. Spain had long been deficient in the production of grain, and turned to North Africa and later Germany for wheat and flour imports. With the Spanish settlements in North Africa under siege throughout the first half of the 17th century, the Spanish King turned to the Flemish to provide grain from the Elbe and the Baltic for Spain. However, with the war in Germany, by the 1620s even this became more expensive and difficult to obtain. The captaincies of Vale dos Flamengos (Delaware River Valley) and Espírito Santo filled the gap and began to provide enough wheat not only for Spain, but for much of Europe by the end of the 17th century. In addition, wheat and flour was being exported to the Caribbean in exchange for sugar, rum and molasses. Dried cod too became an important export from Terra Nova (Newfoundland) as Basque, Portuguese and Galician fisherman arrived in increasing numbers from Europe to fish off the Grand Banks. It would be during this period that the first forts were erected on Terra Nova as a way to keep foreign fisherman from the region.
To the South, Espírito Santo (Chesapeake River), the oldest Portuguese settlement in North America experienced a period of prosperity too as tobacco gained increasing popularity in Europe and the Far East. However, as the lowlands soil was quickly exhausted by tobacco cultivation, the settlers began to look for other lands, moving further inland and south. The settlers in the coastal regions, began producing grain instead. By the mid-17th century the European population had reached nearly 250,000, coupled with this were 140,000 slaves. A small stream of European immigrants continued to migrate to the region, however beginning around 1600, African slaves were imported first from the West Indies and later directly from Africa in ever larger numbers. Initially, Indian slaves had been utilized, but by the late 16th century, their numbers had been decimated and there were few left in the regions East of the Apalches (Appalachians).
In Nova Castela (S. Carolina), the Spanish settlers began to cultivate rice from plants imported from Asia, and this soon became a major export to Spain and the rest of Europe. Here too, slavery was important, and by 1660 there were 21,000 Europeans and free persons of colour compared with 39,000 slaves in Nova Castela. The slaves were imported mostly from the Rice Coast of Africa, around Senegambia and Sierra Leone as many already were knowledgeable in the cultivation of rice. At the slave markets in Nova Alba, slaves from the Rice Coast commanded a higher price as a result. The success or rice cultivation spread south into São Miguel, where the white population 10,000 by 1660. However, here too African slaves outnumbered the Europeans as there were 12,000 in the captaincy by that time. Around the mid-17th century another cash crop was introduced, indigo and its cultivation would lead to the first large-scale settlement of Florida. The plant prized for the rich blue dyes it produced soon spread throughout southern North America, as it became particularly prized in Germany. By 1660, Florida had a white population of 4,700 and some 6,000 slaves as a result. The white population of the region had been boosted by the settlement of 1,200 English recruited between 1647-1651 by Princess Catherine, Princess of Wales and later Queen Catherine, a Portuguese infant who married the future King George I.
Though the wars in Europe would destroy much of the continent's economy, they gave a boost to the economy of North America. The region had previously been seen as a backwater, producing very little of value. Often being described derisively as an icy land of with Flemings and Norwegians. However, visitors from Portugal and other parts of Europe in the 17th century soon began to take notice of the inhabitants of North America. The small spread out settlements in the northern half of the continent grew at a far faster rate than anywhere else in the empire and the inhabitants of the region were taller, healthier and more well fed. The captain of São Lourenço, Rui de Almeida wrote to Lisbon in 1620 describing the inhabitants of the region as men who would make excellent soldiers due to their physical stature. Though the reasons for these differences were unknown at the time, in the northern portions of America the European settlers were spread out on large individual homesteads with plentiful food supplies, including abundant dairy supplies. They married on average ten years younger than in Europe and had far more children, with far lower rates of mortality, once land became scarce, they simply moved west. As a result of this growth, the Captaincies of Nova Navarra & Terra Nova, São Lourenço, São Vicente, Santo António, and Santa Maria had a combined white population of 479,000 by 1660. Though a mixture of Iberian, Scandinavian, Flemish, German and Finnish backgrounds, by the mid-17th century it was noted that most of the inhabitants of the region spoke excellent Portuguese, often better than that spoken in Portugal itself. This might have been attributed to the central role of played by Parish priests who in the largely rural area, provided a pivotal role in society. The priests were usually sent from Portugal, and the church provided what little education was available through its seminaries and convents. They also acted as notaries and would read news from the outside world to the inhabitants. As a result, the parish churches therefore became far more than just places of worship.
Though most of the settlers in the northern part of North America were mostly farmers, living off the sale of grain and timber, the wars of Europe after 1600 would provide the inhabitants of the region with a valuable commodity. Beginning around 1600, the Swedish soldiers at war in Europe made beaver-felt hats popular once more, and the demand for beaver pelts in Europe sky-rocketed. However, with the Kalmar Union in control of the Baltic, Flemish ships could not acquire furs from their traditional source of Russia. A few Hanseatic merchants were able to ship furs to Antwerp, however the supplies were still inadequate, and as result prices began to rise exponentially. In addition, by 1600 the European beaver had been so overhunted that there were not nearly enough to supply the demand. Therefore, demand from Spanish America exploded as the price of a beaver pelt rose from 14 reais in 1600 to 35 in 1633.
The Captaincy of São Lourenço in particular experienced a boom as the furs from the Northern Region were of better quality and fetched higher prices. The settlers here were often subsistence farmers, and the sale of pelts allowed them to acquire additional income. By 1650, around 1,000 European men had ventured north and west to become traders, living amongst the Indians, and often taking Indian wives. They were accompanied by the Jesuits who sought to convert the Indians to Catholicism. However, the latter group often came into conflict with the settlers, as they were often critical of the treatment of the Indians at the hands of the settlers. This would lead to conflict and sporadic violence against the Jesuits, particularly in the remote areas of the interior, where the crown’s authority was nil.
Fur was not the only trade booming in North America. Spain had long been deficient in the production of grain, and turned to North Africa and later Germany for wheat and flour imports. With the Spanish settlements in North Africa under siege throughout the first half of the 17th century, the Spanish King turned to the Flemish to provide grain from the Elbe and the Baltic for Spain. However, with the war in Germany, by the 1620s even this became more expensive and difficult to obtain. The captaincies of Vale dos Flamengos (Delaware River Valley) and Espírito Santo filled the gap and began to provide enough wheat not only for Spain, but for much of Europe by the end of the 17th century. In addition, wheat and flour was being exported to the Caribbean in exchange for sugar, rum and molasses. Dried cod too became an important export from Terra Nova (Newfoundland) as Basque, Portuguese and Galician fisherman arrived in increasing numbers from Europe to fish off the Grand Banks. It would be during this period that the first forts were erected on Terra Nova as a way to keep foreign fisherman from the region.
To the South, Espírito Santo (Chesapeake River), the oldest Portuguese settlement in North America experienced a period of prosperity too as tobacco gained increasing popularity in Europe and the Far East. However, as the lowlands soil was quickly exhausted by tobacco cultivation, the settlers began to look for other lands, moving further inland and south. The settlers in the coastal regions, began producing grain instead. By the mid-17th century the European population had reached nearly 250,000, coupled with this were 140,000 slaves. A small stream of European immigrants continued to migrate to the region, however beginning around 1600, African slaves were imported first from the West Indies and later directly from Africa in ever larger numbers. Initially, Indian slaves had been utilized, but by the late 16th century, their numbers had been decimated and there were few left in the regions East of the Apalches (Appalachians).
In Nova Castela (S. Carolina), the Spanish settlers began to cultivate rice from plants imported from Asia, and this soon became a major export to Spain and the rest of Europe. Here too, slavery was important, and by 1660 there were 21,000 Europeans and free persons of colour compared with 39,000 slaves in Nova Castela. The slaves were imported mostly from the Rice Coast of Africa, around Senegambia and Sierra Leone as many already were knowledgeable in the cultivation of rice. At the slave markets in Nova Alba, slaves from the Rice Coast commanded a higher price as a result. The success or rice cultivation spread south into São Miguel, where the white population 10,000 by 1660. However, here too African slaves outnumbered the Europeans as there were 12,000 in the captaincy by that time. Around the mid-17th century another cash crop was introduced, indigo and its cultivation would lead to the first large-scale settlement of Florida. The plant prized for the rich blue dyes it produced soon spread throughout southern North America, as it became particularly prized in Germany. By 1660, Florida had a white population of 4,700 and some 6,000 slaves as a result. The white population of the region had been boosted by the settlement of 1,200 English recruited between 1647-1651 by Princess Catherine, Princess of Wales and later Queen Catherine, a Portuguese infant who married the future King George I.
The West Indies
In the late 16th and throughout much of the 17th century, much of the focus of Spain's empire in the new world returned to the West Indies. The production of sugar on the various islands increased exponentially, as European demand for sugar increased. This would lead to the production of sugar derivatives including rum and molasses. As a result, the islands attracted European immigrants in large numbers, with nearly 200,000 arriving between 1600 and 1650. Initially, were prisoners know as degredados, who were imported to work. However, slaves from the mainland and especially Africa soon became vital to the local economy. The other European immigrants were fortune seekers attracted by the grants of free land or the ability to earn wages as craftsmen, soldiers, overseers or as sailors. Despite this flood, by 1660 there were only 229,000 whites living in the West Indies. The number remained low because of the abundance of tropical diseases, limiting the lifespan of whites on the islands.
By 1600, the West Indies along with Brazil replaced Madeira and the Canaries as the world's primary source of sugar. To work the sugarcane plantations nearly half a million Indians were imported from the American mainland, however they were not perceived as ideal workers, and therefore African slaves were sought. As a result, nearly 1.2 million Africans from West Africa were imported to the West Indies between 1601 and 1700. Work on the sugarcane plantations was gruelling and dangerous, requiring the constant replenishment of labour supplies as the slaves often did not last more than a few years. In addition, the preference for males meant that there was no self-sustaining growth of the slave population. Coupled with this was the malnourishment and maltreatment of the slaves, increasing their mortality rates.
During this period, the larger islands of the West Indies became the most important. The islands of Cuba, Espanhola and Porto Rico continued to produce sugar, but now they also produced increasing quantities of tobacco. Cuba in particular became a major producer of the plant, as demand from Europe increased. By 1650, the island was home to 87,000 whites, and another 19,000 free persons of colour along with 181,000 slaves. Espanhola had 41,000 whites, 17,000 free persons of colour and 244,000 slaves. These islands had the most diversified economies as they also began producing cotton and indigo, along with several other staple crops.
The island of Santiago too experienced growth as a major producer of sugarcane and by 1660 it had 33,600 whites and 10,000 free persons of colour compared with 78,000 slaves. On the island of Barbados, sugar production also boomed, with the population reaching 49,000 by 1650 on the small island which was under the auspices of the Dukes of Braganza, making that noble family among the richest in Europe. However, by the 1660s there was a glut of sugar on the European market, causing prices to fall, and forcing planters to turn to other crops.
One of the most successful islands at this time was the tiny island of Granada (Grenada). Nutmeg was introduced from the Banda Islands in the 1620s, with production on the small island jumping from 450 to 13,000 by 1660. Of this total, nearly 9,000 were African slaves, imported onto the island to cultivate the plant. However, this prosperity would not go unnoticed, making the island a target of attacks by foreign powers. Most of the other islands however turned to tobacco, as the second-half of the XVII century would be dominated by a tobacco boom.
A tobacco plantation in Espanhola
In the late 16th and throughout much of the 17th century, much of the focus of Spain's empire in the new world returned to the West Indies. The production of sugar on the various islands increased exponentially, as European demand for sugar increased. This would lead to the production of sugar derivatives including rum and molasses. As a result, the islands attracted European immigrants in large numbers, with nearly 200,000 arriving between 1600 and 1650. Initially, were prisoners know as degredados, who were imported to work. However, slaves from the mainland and especially Africa soon became vital to the local economy. The other European immigrants were fortune seekers attracted by the grants of free land or the ability to earn wages as craftsmen, soldiers, overseers or as sailors. Despite this flood, by 1660 there were only 229,000 whites living in the West Indies. The number remained low because of the abundance of tropical diseases, limiting the lifespan of whites on the islands.
By 1600, the West Indies along with Brazil replaced Madeira and the Canaries as the world's primary source of sugar. To work the sugarcane plantations nearly half a million Indians were imported from the American mainland, however they were not perceived as ideal workers, and therefore African slaves were sought. As a result, nearly 1.2 million Africans from West Africa were imported to the West Indies between 1601 and 1700. Work on the sugarcane plantations was gruelling and dangerous, requiring the constant replenishment of labour supplies as the slaves often did not last more than a few years. In addition, the preference for males meant that there was no self-sustaining growth of the slave population. Coupled with this was the malnourishment and maltreatment of the slaves, increasing their mortality rates.
During this period, the larger islands of the West Indies became the most important. The islands of Cuba, Espanhola and Porto Rico continued to produce sugar, but now they also produced increasing quantities of tobacco. Cuba in particular became a major producer of the plant, as demand from Europe increased. By 1650, the island was home to 87,000 whites, and another 19,000 free persons of colour along with 181,000 slaves. Espanhola had 41,000 whites, 17,000 free persons of colour and 244,000 slaves. These islands had the most diversified economies as they also began producing cotton and indigo, along with several other staple crops.
The island of Santiago too experienced growth as a major producer of sugarcane and by 1660 it had 33,600 whites and 10,000 free persons of colour compared with 78,000 slaves. On the island of Barbados, sugar production also boomed, with the population reaching 49,000 by 1650 on the small island which was under the auspices of the Dukes of Braganza, making that noble family among the richest in Europe. However, by the 1660s there was a glut of sugar on the European market, causing prices to fall, and forcing planters to turn to other crops.
One of the most successful islands at this time was the tiny island of Granada (Grenada). Nutmeg was introduced from the Banda Islands in the 1620s, with production on the small island jumping from 450 to 13,000 by 1660. Of this total, nearly 9,000 were African slaves, imported onto the island to cultivate the plant. However, this prosperity would not go unnoticed, making the island a target of attacks by foreign powers. Most of the other islands however turned to tobacco, as the second-half of the XVII century would be dominated by a tobacco boom.
A tobacco plantation in Espanhola
Santa Cruz
During the 16th century the silver and gold mines north of Santa Cruz (Mexico) were not as rich as those of Peru, but they were still significant enough to make specie sent from Veracruz the most significant export to Spain. This was followed by cacao and vanilla from Central America, along with cochineal, prized for its red dye and re-exported to Flanders and Italy. The Yucatan peninsula began exporting sisal, used for its cordage and rigging along with salted meat to supply the sailors of the Spanish fleets in the West Indies. The increasing European settlement of the peninsula led to a violent Maya uprising in the 1660s. There European farms were attacked and the Spanish resorted to importing African slaves to work the region's sisal and sugarcane plantations.
From Spain and Italy wine was imported along with olive oil and tools and weapons. From India came ever increasing quantities of cotton textiles, along with silks and spices from the Indies and China. Luxury goods such as lace, ribbons and wigs were also imported from Europe, with the majority originating Antwerp. From the coastal territories of North America, grain and flour was imported, and from the Caribbean rum and tobacco. Perhaps the most strategically important import of all was mercury from the mines of Almadén in Spain, where the poisonous metal was extracted using captives from North Africa. All of this commerce was controlled largely by the prominent Jewish families of Lisbon who built a network spanning the Spanish Empire, and offered credit to the planters, and established the foundation for the first banks in the new world.
In the 17th century, settlement spread northwards into the arid lands around the Rio Bravo (Rio Grande). Here Jesuits established missions amongst the Indians, and European settlers soon followed. However, they were often met with violent resistance, and the area remained largely devoid of white settlers. The region south of the Rio Bravo and North of the Isthmus as a whole attracted some 100,000 European immigrants between 1600 and 1660. Though the majority were Portuguese, around one-fourth were foreigners with immigrants from other parts of Spain, Italy, Germany and England making up the balance. Some would return to Europe, and many Spanish Immigrants in the Americas would often send funds to relatives in Spain, allowing an additional transfer of wealth from the new world to the old world.
The city of Santa Cruz grew to around 50,000 in 1660, being the largest city in America and surpassed in size by only Potosí (160,000). Built on Lake Tenochitlan, the city was consistently expanded as lands were drained. The city was dominated by the Spanish Elite of great families who owned land in the Americas. The city was a replica of a Portuguese city with its stone and stucco buildings, with a large imposing cathedral, palaces, convents and monasteries.
The population of the Captaincy of Santa Cruz (Mexico) in 1660
727,921 White Christians
484,330 Indians
481,365 Slaves
392,870 Mixed & free men of colour (Mestizo, Mulatto, Cafuzo etc)
1,684 Jews
Total: 2,088,170
The population of the Captaincy of Guatemala in 1660
82,475 White Christians
est 340,000 Indians
est 180,000 Slaves
est 52,400 mixed & free men of colour
392 Jews
Total: 655,267
During the 16th century the silver and gold mines north of Santa Cruz (Mexico) were not as rich as those of Peru, but they were still significant enough to make specie sent from Veracruz the most significant export to Spain. This was followed by cacao and vanilla from Central America, along with cochineal, prized for its red dye and re-exported to Flanders and Italy. The Yucatan peninsula began exporting sisal, used for its cordage and rigging along with salted meat to supply the sailors of the Spanish fleets in the West Indies. The increasing European settlement of the peninsula led to a violent Maya uprising in the 1660s. There European farms were attacked and the Spanish resorted to importing African slaves to work the region's sisal and sugarcane plantations.
From Spain and Italy wine was imported along with olive oil and tools and weapons. From India came ever increasing quantities of cotton textiles, along with silks and spices from the Indies and China. Luxury goods such as lace, ribbons and wigs were also imported from Europe, with the majority originating Antwerp. From the coastal territories of North America, grain and flour was imported, and from the Caribbean rum and tobacco. Perhaps the most strategically important import of all was mercury from the mines of Almadén in Spain, where the poisonous metal was extracted using captives from North Africa. All of this commerce was controlled largely by the prominent Jewish families of Lisbon who built a network spanning the Spanish Empire, and offered credit to the planters, and established the foundation for the first banks in the new world.
In the 17th century, settlement spread northwards into the arid lands around the Rio Bravo (Rio Grande). Here Jesuits established missions amongst the Indians, and European settlers soon followed. However, they were often met with violent resistance, and the area remained largely devoid of white settlers. The region south of the Rio Bravo and North of the Isthmus as a whole attracted some 100,000 European immigrants between 1600 and 1660. Though the majority were Portuguese, around one-fourth were foreigners with immigrants from other parts of Spain, Italy, Germany and England making up the balance. Some would return to Europe, and many Spanish Immigrants in the Americas would often send funds to relatives in Spain, allowing an additional transfer of wealth from the new world to the old world.
The city of Santa Cruz grew to around 50,000 in 1660, being the largest city in America and surpassed in size by only Potosí (160,000). Built on Lake Tenochitlan, the city was consistently expanded as lands were drained. The city was dominated by the Spanish Elite of great families who owned land in the Americas. The city was a replica of a Portuguese city with its stone and stucco buildings, with a large imposing cathedral, palaces, convents and monasteries.
The population of the Captaincy of Santa Cruz (Mexico) in 1660
727,921 White Christians
484,330 Indians
481,365 Slaves
392,870 Mixed & free men of colour (Mestizo, Mulatto, Cafuzo etc)
1,684 Jews
Total: 2,088,170
The population of the Captaincy of Guatemala in 1660
82,475 White Christians
est 340,000 Indians
est 180,000 Slaves
est 52,400 mixed & free men of colour
392 Jews
Total: 655,267
I'm not sure that there would still be a wig trend if France is less prominent and influential than OTL compared to Spain. That doesn't really impact the economics and geopolitics of the TL, though. Just a quibble.
Also, there are some things that are only now coming to fruition that may have been tried and successfully done earlier if settlement were by Portuguese. Texas olive oil is what I'm specifically thinking of. Otherwise, one would think that the Mississippi valley would produce valuable commodities and foodstuffs that would lead to rapid settlement in the North American interior.
Also, there are some things that are only now coming to fruition that may have been tried and successfully done earlier if settlement were by Portuguese. Texas olive oil is what I'm specifically thinking of. Otherwise, one would think that the Mississippi valley would produce valuable commodities and foodstuffs that would lead to rapid settlement in the North American interior.
France is still the dominant power in Europe, with the largest population, however during the 17th century Italy still dominates the cultural landscape. Though the Austrian-branch of the Habsburgs is challenging the French on land, especially as they now control the low countries and NE Germany. There will be further settlement inland, and I'll be covering that.
I'm just waiting to hear about the wars...
Seriously, though, this is good.
Agreed. It got mentioned a while ago, and we've had a whole bunch of (excellent) updates since with no war update. You tease us so.
South America
In South America, the silver mines of Peru continued to be the focal point of the Spanish Empire during the first half of the 17th century. The silver output of the mines of Potosi would begin to decline after 1600, however production was still considerable, leading to a population of 160,000 in the city by 1660. In addition, Cidade d'el Rei (Lima) grew to have a population of 30,000 by 1660. The region increasingly began to rely on African slaves to work in the mines as the Indian population continued to decrease. Potosi would reach its zenith in size during this time, with its population declining dramatically after 1660.
The Captaincy-General of Nova Andalusia (Colombia) also had mines of gold and emeralds, though these were less valuable than those of Peru. However, the highlands attracted European settlers, as many searched for gold, silver and other riches. The major cash crops of the region were cacao, tobacco and sugarcane in the lowlands. The port of Cartagena also flourished as a centre of trade, linking Peru with the North Atlantic and had a population of 13,000 by 1660, second only to Santa Fe's 20,000 in size of cities in 1660. Neighbouring Novo Algarve remained somewhat of a backwater, exporting cacao and salt. There were attempts to introduce large numbers of Italian and German settlers in the early 17th century, with limited success. Far more important was the introduction of African slaves to the cacao plantations.
On the Atlantic Coast, Brazil enjoyed a sugar boom during the first decades of the 17th century which would attract European settlers to the Northeast, around Salvador da Bahia and Recife. However, by the 1640s a glut of sugarcane caused prices to fall. This in turn would lead many settlers inland and southwards to produce tobacco and to turn to cattle ranching. In the Northern part of the territory, São Luís was founded in Maranhão captaincy by Azorean settlers to prevent French settlement in the region. The area soon became a centre of cotton production. Increasingly, large numbers of African slaves were imported into Brazil, particularly from Angola, as the numbers of Indians here dwindled. In addition, some Indians fled to the safety of Jesuit missions, where they were armed against the settlers.
In the far South of the Americas was Patagonia, which was seen as a barren and desolate land with of giants (the Patagonians were taller than the average Europeans), and no attempts were made to settle the area. On the Atlantic Coast European settlement remained centred around Trinidade (Buenos Aires). The port grew as African slaves were increasingly imported from Nova Lusitania to be sent to the silver mines of Peru. In the vicinity, large cattle ranches grew and the export of leathers and hides to Europe soon grew. In addition, the port began exporting silver from the highlands once a royal highway was completed in the early 17th century, and trade with the Indies commenced as a result. On the Pacific Coast, European settlement in Nova Galicia (Chile) was undertaken, but here too the area was largely ignored as it only produced animal hides, dried meats and some wine. In the Chiloé Archipelago, with a Jesuit mission was founded by fisherman from Galicia and Northern Portugal.
Population in 1660
Novo Algarve
160,000 African slaves
85,000 white Christian
45,000 Mixed & Free Coloured
30,000 Indians
500 Jewish
Total: 320,500
Nova Andalusia
338,515 white Christian
128,500 African Slaves
120,460 Indians
81,400 Mixed & Free Coloured
400 Jewish
Total: 669,275
Peru
586,301 white Christian
408,912 Indian
183,617 African Slaves
133,487 Mixed & Free Coloured
1,617 Jewish
Total: 1,313,934
Brasil
100,000 white Christian
100,000 African Slaves
75,000 Mixed & Free Coloured
20,000 Indians
1,800 Jewish
Total 296,800
Trinidade
72,400 white Christian
40,000 African Slaves
34,000 Mixed & Free Coloured
16,500 Indian
800 Jewish
Total: 164,000
Nova Galicia
80,000 white
30,000 Indians
15,000 Africans/Mulattoes
10,000 Mestizos
Total: 135,000
Spanish Silver Coins of the Early 17th century.
In South America, the silver mines of Peru continued to be the focal point of the Spanish Empire during the first half of the 17th century. The silver output of the mines of Potosi would begin to decline after 1600, however production was still considerable, leading to a population of 160,000 in the city by 1660. In addition, Cidade d'el Rei (Lima) grew to have a population of 30,000 by 1660. The region increasingly began to rely on African slaves to work in the mines as the Indian population continued to decrease. Potosi would reach its zenith in size during this time, with its population declining dramatically after 1660.
The Captaincy-General of Nova Andalusia (Colombia) also had mines of gold and emeralds, though these were less valuable than those of Peru. However, the highlands attracted European settlers, as many searched for gold, silver and other riches. The major cash crops of the region were cacao, tobacco and sugarcane in the lowlands. The port of Cartagena also flourished as a centre of trade, linking Peru with the North Atlantic and had a population of 13,000 by 1660, second only to Santa Fe's 20,000 in size of cities in 1660. Neighbouring Novo Algarve remained somewhat of a backwater, exporting cacao and salt. There were attempts to introduce large numbers of Italian and German settlers in the early 17th century, with limited success. Far more important was the introduction of African slaves to the cacao plantations.
On the Atlantic Coast, Brazil enjoyed a sugar boom during the first decades of the 17th century which would attract European settlers to the Northeast, around Salvador da Bahia and Recife. However, by the 1640s a glut of sugarcane caused prices to fall. This in turn would lead many settlers inland and southwards to produce tobacco and to turn to cattle ranching. In the Northern part of the territory, São Luís was founded in Maranhão captaincy by Azorean settlers to prevent French settlement in the region. The area soon became a centre of cotton production. Increasingly, large numbers of African slaves were imported into Brazil, particularly from Angola, as the numbers of Indians here dwindled. In addition, some Indians fled to the safety of Jesuit missions, where they were armed against the settlers.
In the far South of the Americas was Patagonia, which was seen as a barren and desolate land with of giants (the Patagonians were taller than the average Europeans), and no attempts were made to settle the area. On the Atlantic Coast European settlement remained centred around Trinidade (Buenos Aires). The port grew as African slaves were increasingly imported from Nova Lusitania to be sent to the silver mines of Peru. In the vicinity, large cattle ranches grew and the export of leathers and hides to Europe soon grew. In addition, the port began exporting silver from the highlands once a royal highway was completed in the early 17th century, and trade with the Indies commenced as a result. On the Pacific Coast, European settlement in Nova Galicia (Chile) was undertaken, but here too the area was largely ignored as it only produced animal hides, dried meats and some wine. In the Chiloé Archipelago, with a Jesuit mission was founded by fisherman from Galicia and Northern Portugal.
Population in 1660
Novo Algarve
160,000 African slaves
85,000 white Christian
45,000 Mixed & Free Coloured
30,000 Indians
500 Jewish
Total: 320,500
Nova Andalusia
338,515 white Christian
128,500 African Slaves
120,460 Indians
81,400 Mixed & Free Coloured
400 Jewish
Total: 669,275
Peru
586,301 white Christian
408,912 Indian
183,617 African Slaves
133,487 Mixed & Free Coloured
1,617 Jewish
Total: 1,313,934
Brasil
100,000 white Christian
100,000 African Slaves
75,000 Mixed & Free Coloured
20,000 Indians
1,800 Jewish
Total 296,800
Trinidade
72,400 white Christian
40,000 African Slaves
34,000 Mixed & Free Coloured
16,500 Indian
800 Jewish
Total: 164,000
Nova Galicia
80,000 white
30,000 Indians
15,000 Africans/Mulattoes
10,000 Mestizos
Total: 135,000
Spanish Silver Coins of the Early 17th century.