Of Rajahs and Hornbills: A timeline of Brooke Sarawak

[Al-numbers]

A protectorate over Papua was declared by Queensland in 1883, rejected by Britain but then affirmed on the basis of being funded by Australia in 1884, and it was formally annexed to the Empire in 1888. In 1902 it was formally transferred to Australian control, which lasted until independence in 1975. That being said, from 1884 the northern half of the eastern half of Papua was under German control as Kaiser-Wilhelmsland, part of the colony of German New Guinea, which also included the Bismarck Islands, the North Solomon Islands, Palau, Nauru, the Carolines, the Marianas and the Marshalls. So there's quite a few lines to be drawn on the map. Apparently the Bismarcks - particularly the islands today called New Britain and New Ireland - were reasonably successful as colonial ventures, if that helps.

Thanks for the info! Sorry for not replying early, but I couldn't think of anything more to add to this discussion. Well, almost. I'm guessing that whatever Great Power that acquires those islands would probably want foreign contract workers who can understand orders. Do you know where they come from? And is it possible that they come from another country ITTL?

Just read through this TL, I'm now subscribed.

Thank you!

Currently typing the British-Dutch-Sarawakian affairs of 1870-1871. Turns out setting your schedule on a busy week does not improve productivity, nor being creative in writing.

 

[ramones1986]

Any updates on the cultural life of Sarawak during this time, specifically literature in Sarawakian Malay and other languages like Iban and Bidayuh?

 

[xt828]

Thanks for the info! Sorry for not replying early, but I couldn't think of anything more to add to this discussion. Well, almost. I'm guessing that whatever Great Power that acquires those islands would probably want foreign contract workers who can understand orders. Do you know where they come from? And is it possible that they come from another country ITTL?

They generally just used locals, it seems. The Germans made some attempts to get labourers from China, Japan and their other holdings, but that didn't really pan out. They made it a requirement that tribes had to offer a certain number of hours of labour per person.

It's worth bearing in mind that PNG's geography, while spectacular, is exceedingly difficult, and even today transportation and communication are major problems. Colonial economic efforts tended to be limited to coastal areas and the nearby islands, because going further inland was a big ask. It's not tremendously related, but if you ever get the chance to watch the film Kokoda, or some of the documentaries around the WW2 conflict on the Kokoda track, look at the terrain, and consider that this was the most passable route over the mountains.

 

[Al-numbers]

They generally just used locals, it seems. The Germans made some attempts to get labourers from China, Japan and their other holdings, but that didn't really pan out. They made it a requirement that tribes had to offer a certain number of hours of labour per person.

It's worth bearing in mind that PNG's geography, while spectacular, is exceedingly difficult, and even today transportation and communication are major problems. Colonial economic efforts tended to be limited to coastal areas and the nearby islands, because going further inland was a big ask. It's not tremendously related, but if you ever get the chance to watch the film Kokoda, or some of the documentaries around the WW2 conflict on the Kokoda track, look at the terrain, and consider that this was the most passable route over the mountains.

An alternate Corvée? Now that's interesting. I wonder if they will continue using it if they hadn't lost WWI.

Hmm... just how navigable are the rivers of Papua? I think that even if only the lowland portion is brought under German or Italian control, it would make a big difference in how will the colony turn out.

Any updates on the cultural life of Sarawak during this time, specifically literature in Sarawakian Malay and other languages like Iban and Bidayuh?

Right now, most of the towns from Kuching to Maling are settling down due to James and Charles [mostly] successful anti-piracy and anti-headhunting campaigns. Some regions like the Rajang Delta and Bau are seeing Teochew and Hainanese immigration either for work or trade, and a minute Sikh community has planted itself in Kuching. As for the Dayaks, there are some like the Bidayuh and the lowland Ibans whom have settled down in the mountains and rivers and have mostly given up headhunting and piracy. However, there is still a noticeable portion of Dayaks whom have moved upriver - and up the mountains - to continue their traditions and wage insurrection against the state. That's going to be Charles Brooke's priority, though he may need to invest in a few more gunboats to police the ever-expanding state first.

Due to the vastness of Sarawak and the informal segregation of work between all the ethnic and immigrant groups, there's very little intermingling apart from the casual walk down the street (though this will change soon) and generally, every group takes care of themselves for the moment.

As for literature, education has been made a priority, but so far most of the Kuching Malays are going to missionary schools to learn basic English (if you wanna be in the Sarawak [Civil] Service, you need to know a few phrases first) and any Sarawak Malay literature is still in it's seed phase. Other than that, most Malay towns are using imams and ustaz's to educate their children, so you'll find more people reading the Quran at this period than reading up on translated news from Singapore. As James and Charles wanted to "protect" the Dayaks, there's absolutely no education offered to them at this point, and unless a another person is in charge that's not going to change.

 

[xt828]

An alternate Corvée? Now that's interesting. I wonder if they will continue using it if they hadn't lost WWI.

Hmm... just how navigable are the rivers of Papua? I think that even if only the lowland portion is brought under German or Italian control, it would make a big difference in how will the colony turn out.

There was a bit of back and forth about it - there was a push to disestablish it in about 1910-11, but the landlords objected and there was some civil disturbance which the garrison had to sort out, and the governor was recalled to Berlin.

The lowlands are your best bet, but they're very much the coastal areas. Inland control will be broadly theoretical without the sort of investment that greened Israel. Having said that, if the surveyors can get involved early, there is a staggering amount of natural resources up there, just all of it very difficult to get to and exploit. Again, the island chains in PNG which Germany historically occupied were much more profitable and more easily exploitable in the period.

One interesting thing is that the German newpaper article suggested that the Dutch had for the time pulled back from West Papua somewhat, so there might be the possibility there of a commercial transaction for the right price. The island of Papua, as a whole, seem to have been more or less regarded as being in the too-hard basket by the colonial powers of the region.

 

[Jonathan Edelstein]

As James and Charles wanted to "protect" the Dayaks, there's absolutely no education offered to them at this point, and unless a another person is in charge that's not going to change.

With "protect," in this case, meaning "freeze in martial-race amber?" I suspect that won't work in the long run; at the very least, individual Dayak veterans will set up shop in Kuching, and some of them will want to take the educational opportunities that exist there.

 

[Al-numbers]

One interesting thing is that the German newpaper article suggested that the Dutch had for the time pulled back from West Papua somewhat, so there might be the possibility there of a commercial transaction for the right price. The island of Papua, as a whole, seem to have been more or less regarded as being in the too-hard basket by the colonial powers of the region.

Wait, so there could be a chance for all of Papua to fall to another colonial power or two [well, discounting the Birds Head Peninsula]?

With "protect," in this case, meaning "freeze in martial-race amber?" I suspect that won't work in the long run; at the very least, individual Dayak veterans will set up shop in Kuching, and some of them will want to take the educational opportunities that exist there.

Correct! Both James and Charles Brooke were very much influenced by European ideals of paternalism and romanticism during their rule, and [in their point if view] education for the Dayaks was seen as "bringing them to a state they have no desire to be in." The was also the sheer vastness of Sarawak in that time which, despite numerous adaptations, considerably hampered government policy in social matters.

Of course, some individual Dayaks won't take the status quo so smoothly; A substantial portion of the Bidayuh are already being converted to Christianity, and there will be an unexpected trade between the Chinese and the Dayaks (tee hee ) which will expose the latter to money and the value of wealth. Sooner or later, the paternalism will have to come down.

 

[xt828]

Wait, so there could be a chance for all of Papua to fall to another colonial power or two [well, discounting the Birds Head Peninsula]?

I think there's potential for several powers to have footholds in Papua - aside from the obvious British, Dutch and potentially Portuguese or French, the Germans, and even the oddballs like the Italians, Austro-Hungarians, the Americans etc could go for a slice of the island and its neighbors. Having said that, I think that should a power which is aspirational [ie Germany, Italy] or a traditional enemy [ie France] get involved, the Australians will get agitated.

The key is how late the claiming of the island actually took place - until the Germans and Australians started squabbling, it hadn't really been laid down, so far as I know - the first treaties formalising borders were in 1885, between the Germans, British and Dutch.

 

[SenatorChickpea]

Hmm... as others have said, more of a great-power struggle in the Indies will pull the attention of the Australian colonies north.

Interestingly- this might well lead to an expansion of Pacific labour in Australia, which will in turn lead Queensland- and possibly some of the other colonies- to fight harder against blanket immigration restrictions.
Not out of any opposition to racism, but rather quite the opposite- some of the rhetoric against White Australia OTL was from people worried it would cut Australia off from easy plantation labour.
Perversely, more "blackbirding" might actually set Australia up for a less xenophobic century.

 

[Unknown]

Wouldn't that be ironic for Australia?

Waiting for more, sketchdoodle...

 

[Al-numbers]

Thanks for all the replies everyone! And a knee-jerk Australia ending up less xenophobic would be up among the great heights of irony.

I've done writing the update, but I can't seem to find the appropriate pictures for it . So deadline's changed to Wednesday or Thursday, sorry!

 

[xt828]

Hmm... as others have said, more of a great-power struggle in the Indies will pull the attention of the Australian colonies north.

Interestingly- this might well lead to an expansion of Pacific labour in Australia, which will in turn lead Queensland- and possibly some of the other colonies- to fight harder against blanket immigration restrictions.
Not out of any opposition to racism, but rather quite the opposite- some of the rhetoric against White Australia OTL was from people worried it would cut Australia off from easy plantation labour.
Perversely, more "blackbirding" might actually set Australia up for a less xenophobic century.

Queensland was the only colony which resisted ending blackbirding and deporting the Kanakas, but it wanted them to be allowed to stay and the blackbirding to continue within the confines of the nearly universally supported White Australia policy. It was basically an uncontroversial policy path, and the only questions around it related to what the policy would be for the currently resident non-white population - not just the Kanakas, but the Chinese who arrived in the gold rushes and the Japanese pearlers too. The Kanakas were deported because it was seen as a relatively easy fix, while the other ethnicities were 'just' heavily discriminated against.

 

[SenatorChickpea]

Queensland was the only colony which resisted ending blackbirding and deporting the Kanakas, but it wanted them to be allowed to stay and the blackbirding to continue within the confines of the nearly universally supported White Australia policy. It was basically an uncontroversial policy path, and the only questions around it related to what the policy would be for the currently resident non-white population - not just the Kanakas, but the Chinese who arrived in the gold rushes and the Japanese pearlers too. The Kanakas were deported because it was seen as a relatively easy fix, while the other ethnicities were 'just' heavily discriminated against.

Yeah, I expressed that badly. White Australia will still happen, but I wonder if there's a chance for it to be slightly more porous, that's all.

 

[Al-numbers]

Mary Schneider, The colonial affairs of South-East Asia (Ender Publishing; 2009)

The two years that marked the arrival of the 1870's were some of the most confusing years in Maritime Southeast Asia, and the arrival of the Italians did not make things any easier. Not only were there no less than 3 Anglo-Dutch treaties and at least 1 tangential agreement signed in that period alone, but the factors that precipitated them were as intertwined and complex as the treaties themselves.

Though the official signing dates were dated to 1870 and 1871, the discussions surrounding the various agreements actually started about two years earlier. On September 1868, negotiators began convening in London and Amsterdam to resolve two long-standing colonial disputes in their overseas territories: The status of Siak, and the abolishment of slavery in Suriname. Located on the island of Sumatra, the sultanate of Siak Sri Inderapura was coveted by both Great Britain and the Netherlands for its location and resources, and the latter's invasion of the polity in 1858 only deepened the rift between the two powers over it. There were also an increasing number of complaints from Singapore relating to British traders facing high duties in Siak, adding a commercial bent to the dispute. As for Suriname, the South American colony was one of the few places in which slavery was still practiced by the Dutch, and the region's deplorable treatment of it's African workers made it a sore spot in Anglo-Dutch relations.

Finally, talks commenced between both parties on September 1868 to discuss both issues, and initially both sides found much to concur about. Great Britain agreed to back down its claims to Siak and allow Dutch sovereignty over the sultanate, and the Netherlands would reduce duties to British traders and improve inter-straits commerce in the region. The Dutch also agreed to abolish slavery in Suriname and stop importing new slaves from Africa, using contract workers from their holdings in the East Indies instead. To sweeten the deal, the British offered them the right to purchase workers from British India, a deal Amsterdam heartily accepted.

However, the settled agreements were soon thrown up into the air as a result from an outside force that literally came from the blue; the Italian Expedition of 1869. Buoyed by years of intrigue and the influence of nationalists, the Kingdom of Italy launched a naval expedition on the early months of that year to establish its first ever colonial empire in the East, alarming officials in both Batavia and Singapore. Arriving to the region on July the 28th, the Italians quickly signed a commercial treaty with the sultan of Aceh, following up with plans for an Italian Consul in Johor and contact with royal officials in Bandar Brunei. However, the most eye-popping incident relating to the fleet occurred on late August when Sarawakian emissaries spied a convoy of Italian boats stopping by a large weedy field on the banks of the Kimanis River, the same place where the failed American colony of Vinston once stood.

Nino Bixio, architect of the 1869 Italian Expedition and first Italian Consul to Johor.​

The actions of the fleet set the East Indies on a diplomatic inferno. Almost immediately after, Batavia telegraphed the colonial office in Amsterdam, stating that the Siak treaty would not be recognized unless Britain acceded to Dutch control throughout the entire East Indies, including Aceh. Meanwhile, Sarawak wanted a defensive agreement that would protect itself from foreign encroachment, and both the latter powers wanted a revision of the Borneo Treaty signed back in 1862 to confirm, once and for all, their positions over the island.

Initially, Great Britain did not respond well to the backlash, threatening to back out from the Suriname Treaty unless the Dutch accepted the conditions already negotiated for Siak. As time passed, cooler heads spoke out and talks soon resumed. By the end of 1869, both parties decided to accept the Siak Treaty and the Suriname Treaty as is, and instead work on a new agreement to work out their claims over the east, with Sarawak joining in as an observer and side-negotiator.

It was a confusing process when the assembled parties convened in mid-1870. The Netherlands requested for a greater application of the "Indian workers-clause" throughout their entire overseas domains whilst Great Britain wanted foreign confirmation of their "sphere of influence" over the tin-rich Malay Peninsula. Sarawak also wanted confirmation of their own influence over North Borneo, but it was an area also coveted by London and Amsterdam for its strategic location, causing a stalemate in the initial proceedings.

But after months of discussions, it was decided that the Borneo and East Indies disputes would be split into separate issues to streamline the respective agreements. On the East Indies, Great Britain rescinded their protection of Aceh, allowed the Netherlands to use Indian contract workers in the east, and accepted Dutch sovereignty over the entire East Indies. In return, the Netherlands concurred to full British influence over the Malay Peninsula. Both London and Amsterdam also agreed to aid one another in colonial disputes in the east, a deal made good when both navies teamed up to hound the Italian fleet from the Flores archipelago on September 1870, the very same month the Siak and Suriname treaties were officially signed.

As for Borneo, the three parties soon settled on yet another compromise, this time one that especially favoured the Brookes. Noting the northern lords' warmness for Kuching and the usefulness of having a friendly nation on a disputed area, Great Britain decided to back down on its claims to Northern Brunei, provided that Sarawak would be open for requests for a British base in the area "should the [Royal] Navy may require of it." The Netherlands also backed down from their claim, though not before acquiring the tiny Fort Brooke exclave in Sentarum from Charles Brooke, finally completing their long-fought takeover of the Kapuas floodplains. Taking a leaf from the Anglo-Dutch naval cooperation, Both Kuching and Batavia jointly agreed to end headhunting on their border regions, curb inter-state smuggling, and allow each other's war expeditions to freely cross state borders, a decision that Rajah Charles Brooke described as being "...obscenely far too long in the making."

To encapsulate the two agreements, a demarcation line was officially drawn right through the Straits of Malacca, going straight below British Singapore before cleaving through the South China Sea, ending on Datu Point. Anything west and north of the line would be out of Dutch authority, and vice versa goes for the British and Sarawak, delineating each Powers' areas of influence throughout geographical Sundaland. Whatever islands that lay astride the line would have their colonial status resolved in subsequent talks, the most famous of which were the Natuna and Anambas Islands, whose sovereignty was handed over from the DEI to Sarawak in 1875.

The East Indies Treaty and the new Bornean Treaty came into effect on July 8th 1871, and it forever divided the numerous polities of the region as both the British and the Dutch consolidated their holds on the archipelago. For the Malay States, it meant the beginning of British interference and eventual colonization. For Johor, it was the start of a precarious - and unsettling - balancing act. For the island kingdoms of the East Indies, it was the dawn of Dutch sovereignty over the numerous archipelagos. For Brunei, it was another blow to the empire as Sarawak openly interfered with north Bornean affairs.

However, despite all the agreements and all the treaties signed by the three powers, there was no hiding the fact that Maritime Southeast Asia was no longer their private garden. Against all odds, the Italian fleet managed to set up a post on Biak Island off the coast of Papua, creating its first official colony in the East Indies. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 also set off a flurry of foreign companies eager to reap the benefits of the Pacific Rim. While the treaties of '70-71 marked the end of Anglo-Dutch quarrelling, it was also the decade when Europe fully entered the Age of New Imperialism.

A romantic sketch showing a defensive tower overlooking a hilly landscape, made by an unknown artist.​

____________________

Footnotes:

1) There was actually one more colonial territory on the line that was discussed IOTL, the status of the Dutch Gold Coast in West Africa. However, due to political butterflies the Dutch minister for Colonial Affairs is held by a different person, thus shelving the Gold Coast issue for the next few years.

2) Before you all ask, I haven't forgotten about Joseph W. Torrey and his lease to northern Brunei. That thread will have it's end soon enough.

 

[Sextus Munatius Piso]

Italian East Indies? Damn those butterflies!

I've been following this for a while. So far, so good. Keep it up, you've earned yourself another avid subscriber.

 

[Al-numbers]

Italian East Indies? Damn those butterflies!

I've been following this for a while. So far, so good. Keep it up, you've earned yourself another avid subscriber.

Thank you!

And with all that has happened in Italy over the past decade, an Italian East Indies expedition was inevitable. There were Italian companies in the South China Sea by the 1860s IOTL, and there were even several "commercial" expeditions to sultanates like Aceh that actually happened (though poor planning, tropical disease and British-Dutch no-no's stamped that quickly). In this timeline, Italy came out stronger and there were more factors (Cavour, Moreno and Abu Bakar being notable ones) pulling the state to the East Indies. A base to stop en route to China also helps.

Still, just because Rome has a foothold over there doesn't mean it can simply go on a colonial spree as it likes. The British and Dutch have been dragged from one colonial hoo-haa to another ITTL, and both sides have now agreed to protect each others' interests against any outside force. The only saving grace for Italy is that the Dutch haven't yet define how "east" the Dutch East Indies should be, and that clause may need to laid down by force.

 

[Ridwan Asher]

Italian Papua, hmm ?

 

[Herr Frage]

Italian Papua, hmm ?

I wouldn't be so sure. The Italians have a toehold at the moment, and a foothold may not be something The Anglo-Dutch can stop, but they will most certainly strive to minimize it.

The two rival have agreed for the time being that interlopers are the greater evil. Italy may find itself quite blocked, and end up taking out its expansionist desires elsewhere with a greater panache chafing from being denied.

Italy is a player in the region, but right now I would sooner bet on Kuching than Rome in the near future.

 

[theg*ddam*hoi2fan]

Just caught up on the timeline so far - really great! I don't know a huge amount about this area of history, but I'm really enjoying reading it. Sarawak seems to be developing nicely, and based on the excerpts from the 'future', it will continue to do so.

Italy's move for colonial gains in this region could lead to some very interesting changes. Could we see them moving in on China in the future? Or trying to, anyway... obviously Britain would do its best to limit them. And if Britain had an alliance with Japan as OTL, they might get involved - I can imagine Aceh looking quite attractive to them.

 

[Al-numbers]

Italian Papua, hmm ?

I wouldn't be so sure. The Italians have a toehold at the moment, and a foothold may not be something The Anglo-Dutch can stop, but they will most certainly strive to minimize it.

The two rival have agreed for the time being that interlopers are the greater evil. Italy may find itself quite blocked, and end up taking out its expansionist desires elsewhere with a greater panache chafing from being denied.

Italy is a player in the region, but right now I would sooner bet on Kuching than Rome in the near future.

Herr Frage is right on this one. As of this update, Italy only gained a single island instead of a few archipelagos (and Aceh), and any colonial expansion would come right in the face of Anglo-Dutch cooperation. Prior to this, the latter two have been dragged from conference to conference every 5-7 years or so over their respective positions in Borneo and Sumatra, and both of them have gotten tired of this cycle and decide to team up. Besides, why bother fighting in the Far East when one could just get - as Leopold of Belgium says it - "...a slice of this magnificent African cake"?

Still, even back then Papua was considered unclaimed land to the Europeans, and Batavia hasn't set foot in that region since the early 1800's when they decided to focus on Java and Sumatra. Plus, at this point no one really knows just how east should the DEI be, and that might give an opening to any power who's in for a colonial spree. Italy will be in for an Anglo-Dutch collision course, but they might just snag a piece of Papua in the end.

With all this being said though, it's worth pointing out that some of the East Indies sultanates, including those in Borneo and Malaya, had a lot of foreign suitors wanting them to accept protection. If you think Italy's the only Power eyeing SE-Asia, just wait till Germany, the U.S and Russia joins in! Also, Austria-Hungary might also get itself involved in this timeline...

Just caught up on the timeline so far - really great! I don't know a huge amount about this area of history, but I'm really enjoying reading it. Sarawak seems to be developing nicely, and based on the excerpts from the 'future', it will continue to do so.

Italy's move for colonial gains in this region could lead to some very interesting changes. Could we see them moving in on China in the future? Or trying to, anyway... obviously Britain would do its best to limit them. And if Britain had an alliance with Japan as OTL, they might get involved - I can imagine Aceh looking quite attractive to them.

Thanks for enjoying this!

On China, definitely. The Qing Empire will be attractive to the Great Powers the same way it was attractive IOTL, and Italy will want a piece of it. The British will be most definitely unhappy about this and would try to limit Rome's reach over there, but a treaty port or two would be on the Italian agenda for sure. The Japanese...I actually haven't thought about them much *oops* but I think it's political and economic situation will be more or less the same ITTL, and a British alliance is also secured.

As for Aceh, let's just say there are now two Great Powers already eyeing it and neither of them wants to back down. I can't help but sympathize with the Acehnese for this.