Lilburne's World

I had intended to wait until this timeline was completed before I finally posted it, but I don't know now
whether that is ever likely to happen. So, I'm going to post it as it currently stands, stretching as it does
from 1582 to 1944.

This timeline started life, and much of it has been posted before, as 'England in the Thirty Years War'.
But aside from being a very unwieldy title it also quickly became an inaccurate one when I had to move
the PoD back from 1628 to 1582 in order to make it work.

Calling it 'Lilburne's World' isn't probably much better, but convention dictates that something has to go
into the subject line. What I wonder, would OTL be called if some similar, snappy little title was
required for it?

Naming this ATL after John Lilburne seemed as good a choice as any. He certainly has a far greater
impact on this timeline than he did in OTL, but arguably there as many other people, both named and
anonymous that have shaped this world.

As ever, if anyone has any comments, observations, criticisms or questions then just fire away. Mind
you, if someone finds a flaw in the first couple of parts that invalidates the whole timeline I would have
prefered it if it had been mentioned when I first posted it rather than waiting until I got this far with it all.
:-)

1582 - Alexander Farnese, the Duke of Parma, is killed by a stray musket shot (source unknown) in
Flanders. His replacement proves no more successful at than his predecessors had been in defeating the
rebels and fighting in the Netherlands drags on.

1584 - With restoring Spanish control over the provinces still firmly entrenched as Philip's primary
concern and with no immediate victory in sight, he takes the decision not to ally with the Holy League.
William the Silent isn't assassinated. England provides support to the Dutch in the form of financial and
military assistance. While the actually contribution is small, it does have the knock on effect of
improving England's military preparedness.

[William's survival is an early example of a ripple effect in this ATL and is a reflection of the war events
have progressed differently in the Netherlands in the two years since the PoD.]

1588 - The Spanish Armada fails in its attack on England.

1589 - Without Spanish support and with a stronger Protestant presence in the Netherlands to provide
support, the Huguenots are proportionately stronger and are able to force a stalemate in the War of the
Three Henrys. Henry III is finally able to bring the conflict to a close with the issuing of the Edict of
Nantes (ten years earlier than in OTL). He survives an assassination attempt and is able to pull the
country back from the brink. This leaves many of the Catholic nobles with the feeling that an
opportunity was missed due to weak leadership. Only the death of Henry III in 1593 and the secession
of Henry IV prevents them from rising up against the King.

1591 - William the Silent falls in the Battle of Ghent. This marks the turning point in the war and the
slow raise to ascendancy of the Spanish forces. Over the next seven years, each successive Dutch
offensive will fail.

1595 - Henry IV begins walking the narrow line between the strong Huguenots and Guisest factions in
France by promising substantial concessions to each, but then delivering little. France is at peace and is
in a much better shape than in OTL, but it is deeply riven by internal divisions.

1598 - Maurice of Nassau is killed at the battle of the Waal. From this point on the Protestants will be
on the defensive. Philip II of Spain dies and is succeeded by Philip III.

1599 - Under pressure from the Guisest faction, Henry announces that freedom of public worship is to
be curtailed in thirty of the towns to which it was granted ten years earlier (the 'Bordeaux Decree'). This
is seen by the Huguenots as an intolerable attack on their rights and, exactly as their
enemies had planned, they rise up in rebellion.

1600 - With far too many distractions closer to home, the East India Company isn't formed.

1602 - The Dutch East Indies Company isn't formed (for similar reasons).

1603 - James I and VI accedes to the throne of England. While he has no desire to continue England's
involvement in the Netherlands he realises that simply withdrawing from the conflict could cost him
considerable support in his new Kingdom.

1604 - Peace talks between England and Spain break down without success due to the continued
fighting in the Netherlands.

1605 - There is no 'Gunpowder Plot'.

1607 - An English army is destroyed by the Spanish at the Battle of Haarlem. All English forces are
withdrawn from the United Provinces. Philip III sees this as an opportunity to get England out of the
picture once and for all and offers the concession of allowing English ships free passage in the West
Indies in return for peace. James eagerly accepts this offer even though he believes (correctly as it turns
out) that the likelihood of the Spanish keeping to their side of the treaty is low. The Jamestown colony
is established in Virginia.

1609 - The United Provinces are defeated by Spain, finally bringing to an end the rebellion. One
consequence of this is a change in French policy towards the Huguenots. Henry IV approaches the
Huguenots leadership with a view to ending the war and rescinding the Bordeaux Decree. There is a
strongly desire in England not to be humiliated on the continent by a Catholic power again. This will
have a significant influence on English foreign policy in the years to come.

1610 - Henry IV is assassinated by Francois Ravaillac. The accession of Louis XIII of France seems
to offer the opportunity to find a compromise in the Religious Wars. The Edict of Nantes is reaffirmed
over the strong opposition of many Catholic nobles. However, with Spain nolonger distracted by
fighting in the Netherlands, the last thing the King can afford is to weaken his own country by civil war.

1611 - Henry Hudson's ship, the Discovery, vanishes without trace while searching for the North West
Passage. Samuel de Champlain establishes a French colony at Quebec.

1613 - The Roanoke colony is re-established.

1618 - The Defenestration of Prague. Civil war breaks out in Bohemia between the Catholic League
and the Protestant Union.

Sir Walter Raleigh is exiled to Virginia. He will die of dysentery three
years later.

1620 - The Mayflower arrives in New England.

Prince Frederick of the Palatinate is defeated at the Battle of the White Mountain.

1624 - The Habsburgs secure control of Bohemia. Both the Huguenot and the Danes are increasingly
alarmed at the Protestant defeat. While the French are unable to intervene and are increasingly
concerned about hostility at Court, the Danes are under no such restrictions.

1625 - Christian IV brings Denmark into the war with an invasion of the northern German states. The
assaults are halted and then repelled by Wallenstein and Tilly

Fighting breaks out again in France, largely as a result of Richelieu's policies who sees the Hugeunots'
power as a potential threat to his policies.

1628 - George Villiers, the Duke of Buckingham is wounded in an assassination attempt in Portsmouth
as he is organising an expedition to France. Under interrogation the naval officer that attempted to kill
Buckingham implicates a number of his enemies he Parliament who are subsequently arrested. With his
position consolidated at Westminster, Buckingham is able to bring the House into line with many of
Charles I's wishes, raising the revenues ended to continue the war with France. There is no Petition of
Right. English forces break the Siege of La Rochelle and relieve the Huguenots there.

Danish forces are drive back into Denmark. The Edict of Restitution is pronounced.

1629 - Richelieu sees the defeat at La Rochelle as a major blow to both his own position and power
and to France. Despite his previous concerns over the increasing power of the Hapsburgs, he decides
that the 'Protestant Threat' is the greater danger and at his insistence, Louis XIII revokes the Edict of
Nantes. Having staked a claim as a 'defender of Catholicism' in Europe, Richelieu encourages an
alliance with Ferdinand II of the Holy Roman Empire in his struggles with Protestantism there. France
declares war on Denmark, bringing France and almost immediately England, into the larger conflict. 

In England, Charles, with the support of Buckingham, feels no need to dissolve Parliament. Troops are
dispatched to support the Danish troops currently fighting in Jutland Peninsula, preventing the collapse
Danish resistance.

1630 - Sweden enters the war although in very different circumstances to those in OTL. Swedish
intervention takes place despite efforts by Richelieu to keep them out of the conflict. Pomerania,
Brandenburg and Saxony allquickly back the actions of Gustavus Adolphus. The revitalisation of the
Danes, coupled with the entry of England and Sweden are enough to dissuade Frederick from
dismissing Wallenstein.

The Imperial siege of Magdenburg is broken by the Swedish forces who route the Imperial forces in a
series of impressive victories. In the north however, the summer advance of Anglo-Danish forces are
halted by a combined Imperial and French army.

1631 - Charles dissolves Parliament when objections are raised to the cost of the war in Europe.
Sweden wins a crushing victory at the Battle of Breitenfeld at which Albrecht von Wallenstein is badly
wounded and is taken prisoner by the Swedes. With the capture of Munich by the Swedish forces, and
facing the prospect of total defeat, Ferdinand revokes the Edict of Restitution and makes peace with the
Protestant princes. The Peace of Leipzig ends the war but doesn't resolve the underlying religious
tensions in the Empire. Sweden consolidates its position as the dominant force in the Baltic and
Denmark gains territory in the north (annexes as far south as Lübeck). France suddenly finds itself alone
against an array of Protestant powers and with an on-going civil war against the Huguenots.

1632 - Charles in forces to recall Parliament to finance an expedition to aid the Huguenots who suffer a
series of reverses when Spain sends troops to assist Louis. Despite some very vocal objections
Parliament agrees to Charles' demands but only after troops are summoned to the House to
(successfully) intimidate the Members. The fighting in France wreaks the sort of devastation that
Germany had endured since 1618. Richelieu falls out of favour at court, but the fighting continues.
England annexes Calais.

1633 - Charles imposes heavy taxation in Scotland to finance the war. This prompts the Scottish
nobility to revive the covenant of 1581 (five years earlier than in OTL but in this instance not there is no
declaration on Presbyterianism). Charles refuses to acknowledge the Covenant and Scotland rises in
revolt against Charles. Start of the Scottish Rebellion. One of the central issues is the by-passing of
Parliament by Charles and a key demand of the Scottish Parliament is that its authority be recognised.

War breaks out between Sweden and Denmark as both seek to assure their dominance in Northern
Europe. Most of the fighting takes place in Pomerania and lower Saxony with the fighting mostly going
in favour of Gustavus' forces.

1634 - The invading Scottish army is halted at the Battle of Newcastle.

The Colony of Maryland is not founded (this land will later be absorbed into Virginia, with the port of
Charlestown on the site of OTL's Baltimore).

1635 - Fearing that Paris might be attacked by an Anglo-Huguenot army, Louis flees to Orleans. This
action discredits him in the eyes of his supporters.

Second Battle of Newcastle is inconclusive. Charles is forced to come to terms with the Scottish rebels.
Buckingham dies of pneumonia. Charles has several English MPs arrested on suspicion of treason as he
fears losing his dominance in England. Sir Edward Coke flees London and together with John Pym
organises a 'New Parliament' in Coventry.

Gustavus is killed at the Battle of Berlin. The loss of their leader devastates Swedish morale and turns
the fighting in favour of the Danes.

1636 - Charles orders the army to arrest the New Parliament. Westminster is purged of any opposition
to the King. English forces are recalled from France and the 'English Revolt' fizzles out. Spanish forces
crush the Huguenot forces in every encounter. The Huguenot Provisional government in Limoges
collapses in disarray. After the relief of Orleans, Philip IV deposes Louis XIII and places his son on the
French throne as Charles X. With the only other choices being a monarch that lacks the confidence of
the nobles or Protestant heir to the throne, Charles is seen by many as the least unpalitable option

1637 - Charles appoints Thomas Wentworth, the Earl of Strafford, as Prime Minister. He instructs
Strafford to open negotiations with Spain and France to end the war. When rumours spread that as
part of the peace an Act of Tolerance will be passed there are riots throughout the country. The
London riots are put down by the army after considerable bloodshed. William Laud, the Archbishop of
Canterbury, launches a severe crackdown on non-conformists and introduces the Book of Common
Prayer, further inflaming the situation. The Scottish Parliament rejects any reform and begins to raise an
army. Charles's situation becomes increasingly desperate as City financiers refuse to lend him any more
money. His 'tame' Parliament pushes through a number of
ever more draconian taxes.

The fighting ends between Denmark and Sweden with the Danes in possession of much of Northern
Germany. Spanish troops put down minor revolts in France. Upon the death of Ferdinand II, his son
accedes to the Imperial Throne  as Ferdinand III.

1638 - The seizure of lands and assets of Charles' opponents triggers another wave of riots. When
Scottish troops cross the border, Charles brings the conflict with Spain to an abrupt end with the Treaty
of Calais. Calais is transferred to Spain, England is to pay large indemnities to Spain (money which
Charles does not have) and a demand for an Act of Tolerance. The army and navy mutiny signalling the
beginning of civil war. Charles opponents have no effective leadership, but the royalists have scant
resources and the country brings to slide into anarchy. In Ireland the Gaelic Catholics rise in revolt
leading to a number of massacres.

1639 - When Charles defaults in the indemnities demanded under the Treaty of Calais, Spanish troops
are landed on the south coast of England. Faced with the threat of foreign invasion, the army rallies
under Robert Devereux and defeats the Spanish. Charles then meets with emissaries from the army at
Lewes to resolve the civil war. The meeting breaks down without agreeing anything. The army frees
Pym who, with the backing of Devereux, establishes himself as the leader of the opposition. Scotland
now occupies most of Cumbria and Northumberland.

1640 - In the Holy Roman Empire, a Danish-backed revolt against Ferdinand is put down with the
assistance of French troops. One causality of this particular stage of the conflict is Frederick William of 
Brandenburg, which is then seized by Saxony. All of Germany outside of the Danish occupied lands is
now firmly Catholic.

Spain is almost totally dominant across the continent. Philip makes noises in the direction of the Pope
that he should be the holder of the title of Emperor. The Kingdom of Spain (along with Sweden and
Denmark) is one of the few countries that have not been physically devastated by the wars, but like all
of the combatants, the conflict has bankrupted them. Some fighting continues to take place in England
but it is mostly inconclusive.

Historians will come to consider this year to be the end of the 'Great European War' (also sometimes
known as 'The Hapsburg War'.

1641 - With his military power spent and the threat of further conflict with Spain, Charles is forced to
back down. Parliament is convened and legislation similar to the Petition of Right is enacted. Strafford
and Laud are arrested. however, Parliament is unable to raise the necessary funds to pay the indemnity
and is unwilling to pass an Act of Tolerance. Parliament disbands the army, but many units, having not
been paid, refuse to comply. The charismatic John Lilburne persuades Thomas Fairfax that under the
current system nothing will change. The army arrests the King and dissolves Parliament. The
Commonwealth is established under Fairfax.

The House of Burgesses in Virginia refuse to accept the legitimacy of the Commonwealth. England is
unable to take any action against them.

1642 - Lilburne publishes his thesis on 'The Case of the People Truly Stated'. His ideas are years
ahead of their time and prove very popular amongst the common people and the army. The ideas he
espouses come to be known as 'Popularism' and his supporters are known as 'Popularists'.

1643 - Fairfax proves totally inept as military dictator. He is still unable to pay the army, the economy is
in ruins and he is unable to organise any expeditions to recover either the Northern Counties or Ireland.
He releases the King who resumes direct rule of the country ending the Commonwealth. Lilburne insists
that before anything can change, there must be political reform. Charles lacks the ability to suppress any
dissent. Much of the army resorts in brigandage as famine and anarchy stalk the country. The Scottish
Parliament, while continuing to acknowledge Charles as their sovereign, refuse to dispatch an army
south of the border.

Louis XIII dies in exile in Austria. His son declares himself to be Louis XIV and returns to France to
claim his throne.

Denmark cedes Further Pomerania to Poland as part of the Pact of Vilna. This seals as alliance
between the two nations aimed against Sweden.

1644 - Rallying to Louis, French nobles rise up in revolt against Charles X. In order to win the support
of the remaining Huguenot population he announces that he will reinstate the Edict of Nantes. The move
backfires disastrously on him as he suddenly finds some of the nobles that had been supporting him,
defecting to Charles' camp. Saxony-Bohemia is united and becomes the dominant force in the Empire.
Philip (or rather his ministers) prove adept at playing off Ferdinand and Saxony, thus enduring
continued Spanish dominance.

1645 - Charles inflicts a crushing defeat on Louis at the Battle of  Troyes. Louis is captured and
imprisoned.

1646 - In England, the Peterborough Massacre triggers a revolt that spreads into East Anglia. Charles
calls a Parliament to raise funds to fight the rebellion after John Lilburne makes his speech on 'The
Rights of Man' in Cambridge. Few members of Parliament attend and those that do make demands of
Charles that he finds himself unable or unwilling to accept. Bankrupt and
with no means of generating revenue, Charles sends an envoy to Madrid to appeal for aid. Philip
reminds the envoy of the monies still outstanding under the Treaty of Calais and refuses to assist,
preferring to keep England in its present 'harmless' state.

1647 - Lilburne's promise of the redistribution of landowners' wealth horrifies the gentry but for the first
time gives the rebellion a focus. 'Popularism' always popular with the remnants of the army and with the
poor, is given a new political focus. Lilburne is able to galvanism his followers
into the only organised fighting force in the country and marches on London. Charles tries to flee the
city, but is captured and lynches by a mob. An attempt by his son to escape also ends in his death.

Virginia recognises James as 'James I of Virginia'. It is unlikely that James would recognise Virginia if it
landed on him. To the colony's north, developments in England are mirrored by an upsurge in Popularist
support in the New England colonies.

The Duchy of Prussia is absorbed into Poland.

1648 - Charles Beaumont organises a rag-tag army drawn from the nobility in an attempt to fight the
Popularists. The preceding decades of war, have so weakened the participants as a fighting force, that
they are crushed at the Battle of Kettering. Beginning of a 'reign of terror in England as the nobility are
executed and their assets seized.

1649 - Scotland closes its border with England.

1650 - The nobility of Europe are horrified by the events in England but Spain finds itself distracted at
this crucial time by the outbreak of a rebellion in the Netherlands. In France and the Empire there are
outbreaks of Popularist demonstrations, all of which as suppressed without mercy.

Lilburne is assassinated (allegedly by a sympathiser of the nobility, although the assailant is never
found). Jacob Filmore organises the Inner Circle as the governing body of the country, with himself as
'First'. Neglecting any build up of the navy or any 'foreign' adventures into Scotland or Ireland, he
instead concentrates on building up the army. He is heard to say that he shall make England a 'new
Sparta'.

1651 - Sweden plants a colony on Manhattan Island (not settled by the Dutch in this TL)

1652- Spain crushes the last resistance in the Netherlands. Filmore signs  the treaty of York, ceding the
Northern Counties to Scotland in return for assurances of peace between the two countries and James
VII giving up any claim to the English throne (under pressure from the Scottish Parliament).

1654 - France dispatches two expeditionary forces to the British Isles. One force lands in Kent and is
defeated by the 'Spartan Army'. The other lands in Ireland and after deposing the self-proclaimed
'High-King Donald', proceeds to occupy Dublin. Finding no central authority in Ireland and unable to
exert any influence beyond the Pale, Charles orders this force's recall the following year to assist in
maintaining order within France.

The Popularists are firmly in control in New England, although they closely follow Lilburne's writings
and don't profess any allegiance to Filmore's regime.

1655 - With no war between England and Spain in this timeline, Jamaica remains in Spanish hands. The
largest Popularist uprising in France to date takes place in Rouen. It takes eight months to defeat the
rebels and only ends with the complete destruction of the town. Charles concludes a secret treaty with
Filmore, promising not to seek to undermine his regime, in return for guarantees of England not
supporting any Popularist movement in France.

1658 - The death of Ferdinand III. Few of the Princes are willing to recognise Ferdinand's son
Leopold as the new Emperor, but neither do any of them feel strong enough to promote an alternative
candidate. This leads to the effective dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire (not with a bang, but with a
whimper). Philip successfully petitions the Pope to be granted the title of Emperor. Saxony moves to
strength its position, but finds itself deserted by its traditional Spanish allies, who, not wanting any overly
strong German state, lends its support to Saxony's neighbours. Saxony's response is to form closer links
with Sweden (while the two nations have little else in common, they do have plenty of common
enemies).

1659 - Filmore , after years of personal rule of England, introduces reforms aimed at establishing a
form of government based on his idea of Spartan society (which isn't quite the same thing as how it
really was). An Assembly of the Army is organised, as well as a 'Council of Elders' (replacing the Inner
Circle). Five Ephors are appointed by Filmore, comprised of himself and his four most trusted
lieutenants.

The 'Spartan' mentality continues into English fashion and design where simple functionality becomes
prized over ostentatiousness. This is taken even further in New England where there tends to be a high
degree of uniformity in clothing.

1660 - Charles X retreats to Versailles and becomes a virtual recluse. Affairs of state in France are
largely run by  Manuel Ortez, the Duke of Bilbao and Spanish Ambassador to France. Needless to say,
this is extremely unpopular in France, but with the country there is little that can be done
about the situation.

1662 - Spanish agents uncover a plot against Charles (it is really directed at Ortez, but that isn't the
way it is presented). A crackdown on alleged conspirators follows swiftly and several vocal opponents
to the Spanish hegemony are silenced. This eliminates a large part of the non-Popularist, Nationalist
opposition in France.

1663 - An 'inquisition' is established in France to destroy the remaining Popularist power-bases. Many
French Popularists flee to the New World. They receive a very frosty welcome in New England and
establish a colony to the north calling it New France [OTL's NB and Nova Scotia]

Start of the Turkish War, as Mohammed IV leads an attack on Austria.

1665 - Philip IV dies. Upon hearing the news of his father's death, a distraught Charles X retreats to his
bed. He refuses to go to Madrid to claim the Spanish throne leaving Spain in turmoil. 
Charles is the legitimate claimant to the throne, but he steadfastly refuses to acknowledge this fact. In
Austria, Leopold (the son of Ferdinand III and fresh from his victory over the Turks) claims the throne.
This is extremely unpopular in Spain, but with the outbreak of rebellions in Portugal and the
Netherlands, and without agreement on any alternative, he is given the throne. Ortez returns to Spain
where he begins to organise some of the nobility against Leopold.

1666 - Filmore dies and a new Ephor is elected by the Assembly. A power struggle starts between two
Ephors (James Washington and Samuel Martins) to be viewed as 'First'.

Spanish nobles, led by Ortez, rise in rebellion against Leopold. Troops are withdrawn from France,
Portugal and the Netherlands.

1667 - Seeking to exploit the division in the English leadership, James presses Parliament to raise an
army to allow him to regain his throne. This is strongly rejected by Parliament who naturally fear that if
he is successful, then their own position will be undetermined. Undetermined, James raises an army in
the 'English Marches' (the territory ceded to Scotland by the Treaty of York).

Having received no pay or supplies for several months, the Governor of New Castile abandons the
colony and together with his men, leave for Spain. An emergency council is convened in Quebec and
power in the colony is assumed by Bishop Villiers. Without support from either France or Spain, the
colony falls into a swift decline. Over the coming years most settlers retreat back to Montreal and
Quebec but even there the population declines. Many people chose to emigrate to New France. Some
as assimilated into the Popularist-Huguenot culture there, but others form a vocalCatholic-Monarchist
minority.

1668 - Washington defeats James' 'Anglo-Scottish' Army at the Battle of the Wear. This places
Parliament in the difficult position of backing their monarch (and breaking the Treaty of York) or
incurring his displeasure. Parliament opts for the latter when they receive assurances from Washington
that he does not intend pursuing the 'war' further. James is disgusted at the actions of his Parliament, but
is largely unable to do anything about it. When he learns that a delegation from the House of Burgesses
of Virginia (led by Lord Baltimore) has been refused by Parliament, he agrees to meet with them. This
leads to him taking a great interest in his overseas empire.

Leopold promises Portugal and the Netherlands their independence in return for their support in his war
against Ortez. While they do accept and send troops, this move further alienates many previously loyal
nobles from Leopold.

1669 - Washington consolidates his position as Chief Ephor (assuming this title for the first time) after
Martin suffers an unfortunate 'accident' while out hunting.

The Estate-General is convened by leading French nobles in an effort to avert France's continuing slide
into chaos in the absence of any strong government. Charles ignores a petition from the convention to
take a more active role in the running of his country.

1671 - Turkey launches another attack on Austria. Realising that his position in Spain is becoming
increasingly untenable and fearing for his Austrian possessions, Leopold reruns to Vienna.

In Madrid, an usurper crowns himself as 'Philip V'. Four months later he is overthrown and the Ortez
claims victory in the name of Charles. 'Charles II' is declared King in absentia. This restores some
semblance of peace and order to Spain after six years of turmoil. The nation's hegemony over
Europehas now been shattered.

Without Spanish power to hold them in check, Saxony moves to increase its power in the Germanies.
Many states increasingly turn towards Denmark and Poland for protection.

1674- Scotland sends an expedition to Ulster.

1675 - Vienna falls to Turkish forces. Austria is annexed by the Ottoman Empire. Baveria is joined with
Saxony in a confederation.

[Some of the longer term implications of Austria falling to the Turks will be that coffee (and café
society) will not spread into Western Europe but that tea, introduced via Spain will become the drink of
choice. Although this is still in the future at this point, Egypt will one day become wealthy on the back of
being on the Marathian tea route. Other implications of the 'loss' of Austria are that the baroque style of
architecture will not be established and that this TL will be deprived of many of OTL's great musicians.
The likes of Schilling, Mitterrand etc are geniuses by the
standards of this TL, but are hardly on a par with a Mozart, Beethoven or Strauss.]

1677- The Scottish army defeats the army of the local 'King' and Scottish rule is established over
Ulster. An ambassador from the High King in Dublin is received and travels to Edinburgh.

1680 - Start of the Great Northern War. The trigger point is in the Germanies and involves Saxony and
Hesse-Kassel, but quickly spreads as each side brings in their allies. Within a month the battle-lines are
drawn between Denmark and Poland on one side and Saxony and Sweden on the other.

1683 - An ailing Washington contrives to have his son elected Ephor over the objections of many in the
Council and the Assembly.

1684 - Washington dies. In his will, he hands his son, George, the title of Chief Ephor. Three of the
other Ephors, Brebant, Montgomery and Seymour, denounce Washington and organise the forces in
their districts against him. The fifth Ephor, Samuel Fairfax, is generally (and accurately) considered to
be 'mostly harmless' and stays out of it. Washington flees London and returns to his estates in Durham
to consolidate his forces there.

Russia enters the Great Northern War on the side on Sweden.

1685 - Civil War breaks out in England. Despite their numerical advantage, Washington's opponents
are unable to agree on virtually anything and the early engagements go in Washington's favour.

In December the Assembly of the Army meets without the authorisation of the Ephors. Acting under the
directorship of General Hammond, the Assembly condemns the Ephors for their betrayal of the ideals
of Popularism, for acting in their own self-interest and for acting in a manner that will ruin the country. A
General mutiny robs the warring Ephors of their forces. Brebant is killed, while Seymour and
Montgomery are placed under arrest. Washington retreats to the City of Durham with the forces that
remain loyal to him.

1686 - The Siege of Durham. Washington appeals to James for help, but the King's terms (support for
the restoration of the monarchy in England) are unacceptable to Washington. The siege lasts for several
months before the city falls. Fairfax 'retires' and the position of Ephor is abolished with
final authority now resting in the hands of the Council. The army is reformed ('The Uniform Army') and
adopts the sea-green tunics that will become its trademark.

1690 - The Great Northern War ends with the defeat of Denmark and Poland. Saxony unifies the
Germanies into the Germany Confederation and annexes southern Denmark and Further Pomerania
from Poland. Russia establishes control over Lithuania. Sweden gains Prussia and Livonia (originally
lost to Denmark in 1637 and then ceded to Poland in 1641).

1692 - Charles X dies. In  France, a republic under the Estates-General is established. To avoid
another succession crisis in Spain, the throne is offered to Charles Stuart, the son of James VII of
Scotland and who is married to a Spanish princess. He is crowned as Charles III. His move to Madrid
creates a furore in Parliament with some MPs demanding that he now be excluded from the succession.
It is only the superb oratory of the Prime Minister, Lord Selkirk (an ardent supporter of the Stuarts)
that makes it possible to diffuse the tension this issue creates.

The Salem Witch Trials take place. The hysteria quickly spreads throughout New England and into
New France.

1695 - Montreal is destroyed by fire and is abandoned.

1696 - Russia captures Azov from the Turks.

1697- Peter the Great visits Scotland and Spain. He does not visit France and England, although he has
a number of talks with the English ambassador in Edinburgh. While he is totally appalled at the English
form of government he does recognise that the English army is probably the best in Europe and will
later send officers to learn from it.

1699 - The French Republic passes the Declaration of Tolerance, granting religious and political
freedom. The former is merely a token gesture given that by now there are virtually no Protestants left in
France (or indeed anywhere in Europe apart from England, Scotland and Scandinavia). The later is a
move to win support from the remaining Popularists in France and to improve relations with the English
Republic. The first sign that this is working is a granting of a loan by England in the following year.

1701- James VII dies and is succeeded by Charles. He has the distinction of being Charles I in
Scotland, Charles II in Virginia and in the Marches (this latter point is just one of an increasing number
of contentious issues between Parliament and the Marches) and Charles III in Spain.

1703 - The German Confederation erupts in civil war as Westphalia leads a number of provinces
against the domination of Saxony.

Peter the Great doesn't found St Petersburg. Memel [Klaipeda] is Russia's main gateway on the Baltic.
While this is not considered ideal given its location and the hostility of the local population, plans to
construct a new city further along the coast are rejected. Peter orders the forced migration of Russians
into Lithuania to change the culture and ethnic makeup of the region.

1704 - Charles demands monies from Parliament to bail out his Spanish possessions. He leaves
Edinburgh in no doubt as to Parliament's views on 'reckless and expensive foreign endeavours'. He is
forced to seek a loan from other sources and approaches both Sweden and Russia. The former rejects
his approach out of hand, and Czar Peter agrees in return for assurances that the Stuart Empire will not
intervene in any conflicts between Russia and Sweden or the Ottoman Empire. Russia is also to be
given a number of trading concessions around the Empire. Peter is declared Emperor and the Russian
Empire is formed.

The comprehensive defeat of Saxon forces at the Battle of Frankfurt brings the German Civil War to a
premature end. Saxony-Baveria continue to maintain a rump German Confederation, while most of the
other German states regain their independence.

1706 - Charles, who has inherited his father's interest in the colonies, authorises the re-organisation of
his overseas territories. The Marches are separated from Scotland (to the relief of both the people there
and Parliament) and plans are introduced to reform the governance of the
colonies.

1707 - A delegation from New France arrives in Quebec 'offering' to assume control of New Castile.
When word reaches Libreville [Halifax] that this delegation was tarred and feathered, the Assembly of
New France votes tosend a military expedition to Quebec. They appeal to New England for assistance
and while the government rejects the idea of sending troops, a number of volunteer units are raised.

In India the Mongol Empire finally collapses and the successor Marathi Empire consolidates its rule
over all of the subcontinent. There has been only marginal European involvement in Indian political
developments.

1708 - Charles receives a delegation from Quebec appealing for assistance. Some ships and troops are
dispatched from Spain to Virginia carrying with them Nathaniel Tyburn (from the English Marches) who
is to take up the new position of Viceroy of Virginia. The House of Burgesses has its powers reduced
but this is accepted as many are bought off with new titles and promises of land grants. The expedition
from New France to Quebec is a disaster and fails without even engaging its opponents due to poor
planning and worse leadership.

1709 - A ship from Virginia arrives in Quebec to re-establish 'Spanish' control over the colony. While
the people of Quebec welcome the arrival, they are less pleased at the news that New Castile is now to
be administered from Virginia.

The news is even less well received in Libreville and Boston when they learn of these events several
months later. Neither are particularly well disposed to monarchy or Catholicism, both of which appear
to be resurgent in North America under Charles who still (privately) still claims both New England and
New France. As neither colony can expect any support from their 'mother'
countries, approaches are made to the only other major power in North America. Sweden makes
encouraging noises in their direction but offers nothing concrete. However, even this is enough to
dissuade Charles from taking any aggressive action.

1712 - John deRoy, sailing out of Virginia (and resupplying in Cuba) arrives at the mouth of the
Mississippi and claims the area for King Charles. The area is to be known as 'Carolina'.

1716 - The Great Revolt. Austria rises against Ottoman domination. Russia, seeing a chance to
strengthen its position, lends support to the rebellion. One Russian army enters Austria, while another
lands on the northern coast of Turkey. Revolts in Bulgaria and Serbia are put down by local Turkish
forces.

1717 - The Russian forces in Turkey are annihilated at the Battle of Zunguldak. The Turks retake
Vienna. Rebellions in Croatia and Serbia are put down.

1718 - Russian and Austrian forces win major victories at Ostrava and Brno. The Turkish governor in
Vienna abandons his post and attempts to regroup his forces in Bratislava.

1720 - End of the Russo-Turkey War. Austria gains its independence, but at the price of becoming a
client state of Russia.

A number of arrests take place in Scotland of opponents of Charles. This includes four MPs, although a
fifth one is warned and manages to escape to England. In total, 29 people of charged with treason and
plotting against the crown. Of these, 7 are sentenced to death (although 2 of these later have this
commuted to deportation), 10 are to be transported to Carolina, and the remainder are imprisoned.
The arrests and (sham) trials are generally very poorly received by the people of Scotland and does
nothing to strengthen Charles' position.

England: Secret societies flourish in England in the first few decades of the 18th century. These include
the Washingtonians, who favour a restoration of the Ephors, the Sons of Lilburne, who seek a more
Popularist from of government and a very small Monarchist fringe group.

Poland: Poland suddenly finds itself surrounded by hostile forces. There is Sweden to the north, Russia
to the east, a Russian client state to the south and the German Confederation to the west. It is also
without any obvious allies. The Stuart Empire won't help, the French can't and England isn't interested.
In these circumstances it appears to the Polish leadership that partition or annexation is only a matter of
time. Deciding that Sweden is the lesser of the assembled evils and that it is the nation most likely to
preserve some semblance of Polish autonomy, they begin to move into Sweden's political orbit.

1722 - Charles dies and is succeeded by John-Philip.

1723 - The Viceroyalty of the Caribbean is created to control Florida, the Caribbean Islands and
Carolina. Russia purchases the Philippines from Spain.

1725 - Peter the Great dies in Moscow.

1726 - A Russian ship arrives in Manila harbour to find that the Spanish garrison has deserted the
colony and that the islands are in a state of insurrection. When a coastal battery opens fires on the ship
it is forced to retreat. Unable to mount any substantial expedition to retake the Philippines, Czar Alexis
instructs his envoy in Madrid to ask for Russia's money back. Needless to say, the envoy is laughed out
of court. The immediate effect of this is the cancellation of a planned marriage between Alexis and
Princess Maria, the sister of John-Philip.

To the shock and disbelief of Parliament, a Spaniard arrives in Edinburgh to take up the position of the
first ever Viceroy of Scotland. He only narrowly avoids being lynched and anti-Stuart riots break out in
protest. The Viceroy, not wanting to return to Spain in disgrace, takes refuge at
Tynemouth. 

Parliament sends a strongly worded protest and declaration of rights to John-Philip, who flees into a
rage and orders the Scottish ambassador imprisoned. That night, the Imperial Palace in Madrid is burnt
down. While some suggest that this was in fact the work of John-Philip himself, he quickly blames
Scottish assassins and issues orders dissolving Parliament, ordering the arrest of all MPs on charges of
High Treason and instructs the Spanish fleet to convey an army to Scotland. The fact that he had been
assembling the army to attempt to 'retake' Portugal and that he must now
deploy it elsewhere, doesn't help his mood.

Battle-lines are drawn with all of Scotland supporting Parliament, along with Ulster and Dublin. The rest
of Ireland is mostly behind their 'High-King' John-Philip, as are the English Marches. Parliament issues
a declaration of independence and proclaims the 'Republic of Scotland'.

Seeing an opportunity, the Council of Elders in England pledges its support to Scotland. France,
remembering the ignominies of Spanish rule and eager to re-assert itself on the world stage, also joins
the newly formed 'Grand Republican Alliance'.

Fighting breaks out in Ireland, with Republican forces winning a significant victory at the battle of
Navan.

English forces successfully capture Newcastle and the French lay siege to Calais.

1727 - Given the lack of naval strength of the Alliance, the Spanish fleet proceeds along the French
coast, raiding French ports along the way. It finally engages the tiny English fleet in the Channel and
defeats it. Calais is relieved.

Sweden and Russia are literally falling over themselves in their attempts to aid the Alliance and get one
over on the Stuarts. Both dispatch their fleets at almost the same time. Mistaking each other for the
Spanish fleet they engage each other in the North Sea. Even when the true identity of their opponents is
revealed, neither admiral shows any willingness to break off their attacks.  The battle ends
inconclusively with both fleets taking heavy damage and returning to their home ports.

Carlisle falls to the English forces. Most of the English Marches are now in English hands. In Ireland,
Scottish forces are largely able to hold the towns, but rarely venture into the countryside, outside of
Ulster.

1728 - The Spanish fleet arrives at Tynemouth, but by now losses due to bad weather and in a many
raids along the French and English coasts over the last two years have denuded its strength to the point
at which it cannot realistically launch an assault on Scotland.

King Michael of the Netherlands very reluctantly declares war on Spain. However, popular opinion in
the Netherlands is such that he fears (with just cause) that if he doesn't he may be deposed and a
republic established. While the Dutch fleet is not particularly powerful, it is an order of magnitude better
than anything the Alliance had before the start of the war.

An English expeditionary force arrives in France and (with French logistical support) captures Calais.

A Spanish army is dispatched to cross the Pyrenees to attack France. It is defeated at the Battle of
Saint-Lary-Soulan.

A rebellion breaks out in Carolina and an independent Republic of Carolina is proclaimed in Port Maria
[New Orleans]. Troops and a fleet being assembled in Virgina are sent to crush the rebellion. These
were originally intended to attack New England and New France, but are diverted southwards.

Swedish forces occupy Denmark, sealing the Baltic to prevent any future expeditions by the Russian
fleet.

1729 - Faced with an English assault on Tynemouth, the Spanish fleet evacuates the town. With control
of the Channel now firmly in Alliance control, the ships are forced to head northwards around Scotland
and Ireland (retracing the route of the 1588 armada). Only one ship safely makes it back to Spain.

When two days after this news of the failure of a pro-Stuart offensive in Ireland reaches John-Philip, he
is left speechless. New that Portugal might be planning to enter the war against Spain at first prompts
him to order an attack on that country. He is talked out of this and with the greatest reluctance issues a
proclamation magnanimously granting Scotland its independence. He pointedly doesn't mention the
English Marches (now totally under English control) or Ireland (where skirmishes between Scottish
troops and Irish militias are ongoing). It is noticeable that not a single battle actually took place in
Scotland during the entire War of Scottish Independence.

The rebellion in Carolina is defeated and 'Spanish' rule is restored. With the loss of Scotland, Ireland
and the Marches, it is common to refer to the Stuart Empire as the Spanish Empire once again after this
time (but definitely not in Virginia).

1730 - England, recognising its only real area of military weakness in the war, begins construction of a
navy.

The Congress of Edinburgh is held amongst the Grand Alliance nations. Scottish suzerainty over all of
Ireland is recognised (the position of High-King is formally abolished) and the question of the English
Marches and Calais is discussed. Scotland doesn't want the Marches and England is wary of trying to
absorb an area with pro-monarchist sympathies. The solution is the creation of the Republic of
Northumberland, to be governed by a Council of Elders jointly selected by England and Scotland.
Calais is awarded to France, but England is then immediately given a lease on the city for 99 years. The
Netherlands get nothing out of the meeting, but then they didn't actually do any fighting. This doesn't
help secure King Michael's position any. The Alliance is dissolved, but separate negotiations continue
between England and France.

The Treaty of London is signed between England and France. France begins to reorganise its army on
English lines. This leads to English troops being exposed for the first time to translations of Lilburne's
works which have been freely available in France since the formation of the Republic. For the vast
majority of the English troops, they will never have had access to them before as his writings had been
suppressed by Filmore and while a thriving underground press in England had ensured that it was
always possible for a determined individual to find them, they had not been available to the majority of
the population for over 70 years.

Scotland demands of Spain the return from exile in Carolina of the men transported in the Purge of
1720. Of the 12 men originally transported, only 5 are still alive. John-Philip response is to have their
heads delivered to Edinburgh in the spring of 1731. He is not very popular in Scotland.

1730s - Numerous small conflicts take place in the Germanies as each state jostles for power. The
German Confederation largely stays out of these disputes.

1731 - The Marathi Empire annexes Zanzibar.

1734 - When King Ferdinand IV of Austria dies without a clear heir, Grand Duke Peter (the Czar's
brother) assumes the throne.

1736 - Sweden annexes Denmark.

1739 - A new Viceroy is appointed to Virginia. The House of Burgesses is extremely unhappy that he
can't speak English and that he brings with him demands for large tax demands from Madrid. When the
possibility of sending a delegation to Madrid to appeal to John-Philip to reconsider is raised, the
parallels to what happened in Scotland are noted. Nobody in the House can possibly accede to these
new demands, but at the same time, they have no wish to break away from the monarchy. It is finally
decided to send a statement of loyalty to Madrid, but to only pay the pre-existing taxes. The Viceroy is
confined in the Governors Palace in Charlestown under the
'protection' of the militia. 

Marathian trading posts are established on Madagascar.

1740 - News of developments in Virginia is not at all popular in Spain. Many people are extremely
concerned that the King seems to be intent on pursuing policies that can only serve to turn a loyal (to
the monarchy if not to Spain) colony against them and that can only lead to further ruin for the Empire.
The matter is unexpectedly resolved by the assassination of John-Philip and the accession of Maria to
the throne. While John-Philip did not have a legitimate heir, an illegitimate son, Marcos, makes a claim
for the throne. He finds that he receives little support and renounces his claim.

The Viceroy in Virginia is replaced by Sir Eaton Phipps, a native Virginian.

The Swedes found Fort Gotha [Detroit].

1742 - In a bid to attempt to normalise relations with Sweden and Russia, Maria arranges the following
deal. New Castile to be sold to Sweden for a nominal fee. The 'frozen wilderness' is of little value to
Spain, but Sweden sees it as a way to consolidate its holdings in North America at a very reasonable
price. This money is then transferred to Russia as compensation over the Philippines debacle. While
Russia was not really entitled to this money, Maria's view is that regaining Russia's goodwill is worth the
cost. On Alexis' part, he had long since given up any hope of receiving anything from Spain, so this is a
very welcome surprise. Almost overnight, Maria has vastly improved her country's standing with the
other major monarchies of
Europe. 

New Castile is renamed the 'Northern Territories'.

1743 - The Marathi Empire annexes Ceylon. Trading posts are also established at the Cape of Good
Hope (followed by the establishment of a colony ten years later).

Protests in Split against the Ottomans end in a massacre of the city's population. Across Croatia the
people rise up in rebellion. King Peter of Austria declares war on the Ottomans and sends his army into
Croatia to 'support' the rebels. Trieste falls very quickly and within two months the
entire Adriatic coast is in Austrian hands. Russia declares war on the Ottomans, signalling the start of
the Great Southern War.

1744 - Jacques Boulland publishes his treatise  'La Destinée d'Humanité'. An English edition is
published the following year.

Empress Maria dies. Her husband, Prince Heinrich of Baveria, acts as regent for their son, Alexander.

The Russians lay siege to Constantinople.

Fort Christina [Chicago] is established by Sweden. A rebellion in Quebec against Sweden rule is
supressed.

1745 - In an extremely unusual debate in the Council of Elders, General Wallace publicly states his
membership of, and allegiance to, the 'Sons of Lilburne'. Reform of the government and the nature of its
authority are freely discussed for the first time. Although no changes actually take
place, it is significant that the subjects are even talked about (and in a relatively calm manner as well,
only one duel is arranged as a consequence of the debates). Treatises on the nature of English
Popularism become commonplace. The emergence of political parties begins in England with the
two largest power blocks being the Lilburnists (promoting liberal, popularist policies linked with an
interest in a strong foreign policy) and the Washingtonians (favouring more authoritarian rule and an
isolationist policy). Although the average person has no influence in these embryonic parties, in general
the Lilburnists are more popular in urban areas, the Midlands and in Wales, and the Washingtonians
receive more sympathy is the rest of the countryside (especially in the North and South West).

Republicanist riots break out in several Dutch cites.

Over the next three years, a large proportion of the remaining French population of the former 'New
Castile' migrate to New France. By 1749, Quebec is home to little more than the Swedish garrison.
The migrants receive a very cold welcome in the colony as their arrival threatens the
very delicate balance between Huguenots and Catholics that has existed since the 1670s.

1746 - On his retirement, General Anderson makes a speech to the Council warning of the growing
dangers of factionalism in domestic politics. His speech has the reverse effect to what he intended as it
only further highlights the wide-ranging differences that exist.

1747 - The 'Leicester Assembly'. In Leicester, Colonel Montford, the commander of the Leicestershire
Brigade and an officer renowned for both his brilliant strategies and unusual habits (his odd predilection
for taking baths will ultimately lead to his death during typhoid epidemic) addressed a meeting of
Leicester merchants and leading bughers. He canvasses them on their opinion as to which of two
candidates he should throw the Brigade's (i.e. his) support behind for election to the Council. He then
follows their advice. This obviously creates a massive stir around the country. In Leeds the following
week, an assembly of citizens is formed and approaches Colonel Bellingham with their
recommendations. His response is rather more typical and he orders his troops to disperse them.
Montford is called to account for his action by the Assembly and is censured.

[Montford is not in any way descended from Simon de Montfort. He changed his name to 'Montford'
when he first arrived in Leicester in order to create the image of coming from a distinguished
background. He got the spelling of the name wrong by mistake]

Due to a combination of famine and disease, the population of Port Maria has fallen to under 200
people and virtually all of the surrounding country has been abandoned. When Prince Heinrich learns of
the colony's plight, he orders immediate action. Although Maria had never been a vain woman, Heinrich
feels that he cannot allow the failure of settlement that was named after his beloved wife.

He issues various land-grants and titles to prominent Virginians to encourage settlement and while many
express an interest, the biggest obstacle is the lack of a suitable workforce in the area. Very few
ordinary Spaniards or Virginians are willing to emigrate to Carolina, transportation
as a punishment has failed and Church objections prevent the import of slaves. This problem is solved
when the Viceroy of New Spain (who is eager to curry favour in Madrid) offers a large number of
'volunteers' to settle the land. These 'volunteers' are drawn from the native population in the vicinity of
Mexico City who find themselves very, very strongly encouraged to take up this offer that they can't
refuse.

1748 - The first Mexicans arrive at Port Maria. Their enforced migration and isolation sparks a minor
cultural revival amongst the settlers.

1749 - The Ottomans relieve the siege of Constantinople, but at the cost of withdrawing their armies
from most of the Balkans, which fall before the advancing Russians and Austrians.

Alexander accedes to the Spanish throne.

Troops break up a meeting in Cardiff that is calling for a Civil Assembly to be established to function
alongside the Assembly of the Army. The actions of the army are extremely unpopular across the
country and with a great many Lilburnists in the Assembly.

1750 - At a meeting in York, leading Washingtonians meet to formally organise. George Cardell is the
dominant force at the meeting and he is selected to be the voice of the party. Soon afterwards, he takes
to using the 'title' of Ephor. The Washingtonians are numerically very much in a minority in comparison
to the Lilburnists, but the latter are composed of many different fractions, each with their own agendas.
As such, it is rare that they can present a united front on any but the occasional, specific issue.
However, one such issue is that of the need for some sort of reform of the government.

Protests calling for a Civil Assembly take place in several cities in England. These are largely peaceful,
but this is mainly because most urban garrisons have Lilburnist-tendencies. When Washingtonians
demand that harsh measures be enacted to crush dissent (including the introduction of martial law in the
cities), the Lilburnists respond by promising that a limited
Assembly will be established.

With a new Russian army approaching Constantinople from Bulgaria, the Ottomans sue for peace.
When their overtures are rejected, they appeal to Spain and Sweden for assistance.

1751- The Fall of Constantinople and the end of the Great Southern War. Peter declares the
restoration of the Austrian Empire (with himself as 'Czar'). His sprawling empire now includes all of the
Balkans and a lot of people and nations that have very little in common with each other or with the
Austrian heartland. Russia annexes Turkey. Constanta in Romania is ceded to Russia by Austria.

The Congress of Vienna addresses the 'Turkish Problem' i.e. the matter of what happens to the rest of
the Ottoman Empire. In practical terms, this is already sorting itself out as numerous successor states
spring up. Greece is quickly recognised, but the newly established kingdoms of Egypt, Syria
[including Jordan and Palestine], Libya and Tunis [which includes western Libya and Algeria] have a
much harder time of things as civil wars break out in all of them.

Spanish forces land at Rabat and Oran.

Rumours that Princess Charlotte is to marry Emperor Alexander of Spain, prompts riots across the
Netherlands. These escalate to the point at which a full-blown revolution breaks out. King Michael is
forced to abdicate in favour of his son, Crown-Prince Rupert. A constitution is forced upon the new
King that reduces the monarchy to little more than a symbolic figurehead.

Despite events in the Netherlands, Princess Charlotte does marry Alexander, but on the condition that
she renounces any claim to the Dutch throne for any of her heirs and successors.

1752 - Spanish advisors arrive in Alexandria to shore up the rule of the sultan of Egypt. Morocco is
established as a Spanish protectorate.

Anti-Catholic riots break out across New France, with large parts of Libreville being raised to the
ground. Most of the violence is directed towards the new immigrants, but when violence threatens the
'Old Catholics' (meaning any Catholic settlers that had arrived in the colony before the last fifty years),
they are forced to take to the defensive. The council in the largely Catholic town of  New Gascony
[Fredericton] publishes a copy of the French Republic's Declaration of Tolerance and appeals for calm.
The response from the army is to try to arrest all council members on charges of treason. This action
finally shatters the tenuous peace in many other small communities. The violence burns itself out after
two weeks, but leaves a deeply divided community. While the New Gascony councillors are released
without charge, the damage has already been done.

1753 - Philip Chabot, a French mercenary, entrepreneur and adventurer, seizes power in Tunis after he
rallies the Tunisian Army against its Libyan opponents at the Battle of Sfax. He then marches on Tunis
where the army places him on the throne.

1754 - The Civil Assembly is created in England. This body is more a debating house than anything and
has very few powers in comparison with the Army Assembly. Membership is decided by election of
candidates by forums of leading merchants and commercial concerns in the towns and cities (the
franchise having strict financial qualifications). These regional forum were
originally expected not to be standing bodies, but were only to be formed to determine elections to the
Assembly. However, in a number of regions they do become semi-permanent. Despite its lack of
power, the Civil Assembly goes a long way to answering many of the calls for reform in England.
Needless to say, it is dominated by Lilburnists.

In Spain, Alexander pays close attention to events in England. Despite his Stuart pedigree He is under
no illusions as to the 'Divine Right of Kings'. His family's history, the experiences of his wife and the
knowledge that republicanism has become common in western Europe, coupled with the smooth
workings of the House of Burgesses in Virginia, prompts him to realise that if he tries to hold back
progress he may very well preside over the end of the monarchy in Spain.

While Popularism is relatively unknown in Spain so far, translations of Lilburne and Boulland's works
are in circulation and much of Spain's trade is carried out with the republics. Rather than wait until mass
movements emerge he decides to reform the workings of the government of the Empire and issues a
new constitution, guaranteeing a great many rights to the populace and creating a reformed Cortes.
There is some opposition from the nobility, but Alexander is able to overcome this.

1755 - Sweden demands the sale of Louisburg by New France. The recent violence in the colony has
destroyed any prospect that France might support Libreville and faced with the prospect of war against
a major European power, without any allies, the government is forced to cave in to Swedish pressure.
When the Swedes also land on Ile-St-Jean [PEI] and seize it, Libreville is powerless to prevent it.

Czar Alexis dies and is succeeded by Ivan V.

1756 - The Tunisian army sacks Benghazi. The Libyan sultan flees and Chabot declares the formation
of a Tunisian Empire.

The High Council of New France debates enacting a Declaration of Tolerance in the hope of stabilising
the internal situation and to improve foreign relations. The response of the army is to seize power and to
establish military rule.

France approaches England about the possibility of joint action being taken against New France.
England declines to take direct action, but does put pressure on New England to limit its commerce
with its neighbour. Boston is happy to go along with this is return for increased trade with England and
France and guarantees that it will gain military assistance if Sweden threatens them.

The Council of Elders is reformed in Northumbria to allow direct election by electors in the republic.
England and Scotland retain the right of veto. The Council is renamed the National Council.

1758 - Conditions in New France deteriorate as famine, disease and repression form a seemingly
never-ending cycle. An increasingly unpopular and out of touch Army continues to resist any pressure
to change its policies.

Agents from New France are arrested in Boston and reveal under questioning that they are seeking to
enlist support for a coup in New England that will establish a regime more sympathetic to its northern
neighbour. Several particularly vocal opponents to Catholicism in New England are arrested and
charged with treason against the state. While the vast majority of the colony have strong views against
Catholicism and didn't particularly mind or care what was happening in New France, they do care
extremely passionately about foreign powers seeking to undermine their system of government.

New England declares war on New France. News of this prompts armed rebellions against the Army
in western New France.

1759  - The Swedish authorities launch a violent crack-down on an embryonic Popularist movement in
Norway. Many are deported to the Northern Territories.

While England refuses to declare war on New France (something that the Washingtonians would never
allow to pass through the Army Assembly), it does supply ships, equipment and military 'advisors' to
New England. France is meanwhile declares war on New France but doesn't actually do anything.

1760 - News reaches Paris of some of the excesses of Chabot now that his North African empire has
been consolidated. Keen not to have French prestige undermined by the actions of a French (not to
mention not wanting to run the risk that Spain might decide to seize Tunisia), French forces land in
Tunis.

A coup within the ranks of the army of New France deposes the leadership and returns control to the
High Council. Meeting in New Gascony, a reformed High Council enacts the Declaration of Tolerance,
effectively ending the war.

Ivan actively promotes Russian development of Siberia and Pacific exploration.

1761- After ten years of gorilla war in Turkey, Russia accepts that it is unable to hold onto all of a
hostile Turkey and withdraws to Constaninople and its immediate surroundings. A 'Kingdom of Turkey'
is proclaimed at Antalya by a rebel faction.

Chabot is captured and taken to France for trial, but dies on route. A puppet government is put in place
in Tunisia much to the condemnation of many in France who consider this to be 'unpopularist'.
Opponents to this are divided into two camps, those who wish to see Tunisia absorbed into France (a
minority) and those that wish to see an independent popularist government in place there (the majority).

The Congress of Paris sees New France partitioned. The border with New England is adjusted in
favour of the New England while New France itself is split into New France [effectively OTL's Nova
Scotia and eastern NB], an independent, popularist state and Gasconia [western NB and Maine] which
is to become a colony of France. Those few Catholics remaining in the rump New
France migrate westwards. Both England and France guarantee the territorial integrity of the three
states against any external (i.e. Swedish) threats.

Both New France and Gasconia lay claim to Ile-St-Jean, but with a mainly Catholic population, it is
determined that it should be ceded to the latter state. Plans for a joint demand from England and France
that Sweden return the island come to nothing, when Washingtonians in the Army Assembly block it
and the Civil Assembly is at best luke-warm to the idea. In light of this, France issues Sweden with a
very toned-down demand, which is ignored.

An alliance of Washingtonians and 'Nationalists' (a conservative, pro-monarchist faction) gain control of
the National Council.

The Welsh Forum begins to publish official government proclamations in Welsh as well as English.
Under pressure from the Army, it discontinues this practice after three months.

1762 - In Northumbria, the Washingtonians call for the republic to be annexed by England. This splits
the ruling alliance and sparks off anti-English riots in Newcastle. The Washingtonians use this as a
pretext to call for English assistance to restore order. While the situation is being debated in the Army
Assembly (in which the Lilburnists are strongly opposed to annexation but do consider intervention), the
Durham regiment, under the command of  General Hemelson (a Washingtonian) crosses the border.
Scotland announces that it will not allow Northumbria to be annexed and also mobilises its forces.

Carolina is transferred from the Viceroyalty of the Caribbean to Virginia.

A Russian ship arrives in Manila and reasserts Russia's claim to the Philippines. The ship then returns to
Russia, but its actions have significant political ramifications.

1763 - Siam becomes a protectorate of the Marathi Empire. The Marathians begins to demand
excessive duties on traffic between Europe and the Spanish East Indies. Start of the 'Indian Crisis'.

With the army in control of Northumbria, 'Ephor' Cardell tries to present the annexation of the republic
as a fait accompli, only to be confronted by an opposition united by Representative Geoffrey Tanner of
the Civil Assembly. Whereas the Lilburnists in the Army Assembly are normally tooriven by
factionalism to present a united front, the Civil Assembly has no such difficulties and is able to take the
leadership in this crisis. Despite its lack of true power, the example that it sets galvanises the opposition
to the annexation. Cardell backs down and new elections are called in Northumbria. The result is that
the Council becomes dominated by the
Nationalists. With hindsight, there are many in both England and Scotland, who wonder if this does not
represent a very unsatisfactory conclusion to the crisis.

The Viceroy of the East Indies learns of the Russia attempt to 'reclaim' the Philippines which are legally
still Spanish even though they have been ignored since their purchase. Acting on his own initiative and
without approval from Madrid, he despatches a squadron of ships to take control of
the islands. This has the effect of weakening the protection he can afford ships carrying goods to
Europe.

The so-called 'Tulip Conspiracy' is uncovered in Düsseldorf. This sours relations between the
Netherlands and Westphalia and scuppers talks aimed at establishing a Rhineland League.

1765 - Over the course of several months the Marathians sink a number of Spanish ships off the coast
of Singapore when they attempt to avoid paying duties. Madrid responds by dispatching the Imperial
fleet to the area. This adventure, the first of its kind since the debacle of the Scottish War of
Independence, is enthusiastically embraced by the people of Spain and most especially by the Navy, all
of whom anticipate a quick and easy victory. Nobody dares point out that is exactly what had been
expected forty years previously.

The main body of the fleet rendezvous with a squadron from Brazil off Dakar and then proceeds
southwards towards West Mysora [South Africa].  On reaching the Cape the fleet is attacked by a
numerically inferior Marathian force, but the smaller and more manoeuvrable Indian ships cause
theSpaniards to break formation and disperse. Although Spanish causalities are comparatively light they
are unable to regroup. Ships continue to trickle back to Spain well into 1766.

1766 - After the defeat on sea, Alexander orders a new force to be assembled in Egypt to threaten
Marathian possessions in East Africa. Word of these plans reaches India from spies in Egypt and a
force is dispatched to seize Aden and Massava. The Battle of the Red Sea is inconclusive but forces the
Spanish to retreat back to Egypt. The defeats bring about dramatic shifts in public opinion in Spain,
with the small republican movement quick to blame everything on the 'old system' and the nobles
blaming everything on thereforms. The Cortes flexes its muscles and applies its newly acquired powers
for the first time when it blocks Alexander's bid to raise more money to pursue the war. Having seen
the country almost bankrupted once before by pointless foreign adventures, they refuse to countenance
it happening again. When the nobles decide that this is a good time to score points againstAlexander, he
finds himself with virtually no support.

Russia claims Alaska.

1767 - With the Treaty of Alexandria, Spain acknowledges Marathian dominance in the Indian Ocean
and agrees to pay the duty demands on traffic from the East Indies. Alexander turns away from his
overseas Empire and accelerates the process of political reform in the New World colonies with a view
to relieving Spain of the 'burden of empire'.

1769 - The Scottish Parliament passes the first of the Irish Acts.

1770 - Alexander proclaims that Virginia, the most politically and economically developed 'Spanish'
colony, is to become independent. The House of Burgesses welcomes this recognition and reaffirms its
loyalty to the Emperor.

[I am a little bit uncomfortable about Virginia becoming independent in the 1770s given that the date is
so close to OTL's AWI. This was not particularly planned, but rather it is happening at this time purely
and simply because that is the way things have happened to have spun out. The proximity of the dates is
very much a coincidence as the forces that shape 'American' independence in this TL and the character
that it takes are very, very different.]

In Wales, the first practical steam engine is invented by James Glenn.

1771 - Rebellion breaks out in Brazil. The Governor receives orders to withdraw his forces to the
Viceroyalty of La Platte and Madrid recognises the independence of the Republic of Brazil.

The Spanish East Indies declare their independence. While there are many in Spain who want to retain
this economically valuable to colony, nobody is prepared to serious suggest that Spain should fight to
keep it, or is able to offer suggestions as to how this could be done in any case. The
Marathians recognise the East Indies and Madrid bows to the inevitable.

Ivan overcomes his disgust at republicanism and sends out feelers to England and France with a view to
concluding a secret treaty aimed against Sweden. The approach is rebuffed by England and while
France initially makes the right noises, they refuse to agree to a treaty.

1774 - In Brazil, the republic fails and a monarchy is established.

1775 - Sweden begins to encourage Polish emigration to the very under-populated Northern
Territories. Quebec City is renamed New Warsaw.

The Viceroyalties of New Spain and La Platte are granted effective independence.

1776 - The Viceroyalty of New Grenada is given its independence.

This leaves the only major Spanish colonial possession in the New World as the Viceroyalty of the
Caribbean. However, as much as Alexander wants to dispose of this, it shows itself to be in no fit state
to go it alone. A compromise solution is arrived at by which the Viceroyalty is dissolved and
the territories are transferred to Virginia which is to administer them until such time as they can be
granted independence. This radically improves communications between Carolina and the rest of
Virginia.

1777 - In England, a joint declaration of both Assemblies greatly reduces the power of the Council of
Elders.

1779 - In Spain, Juan Martine writes "Los Negocios y el Deseo Popular". This is immediately
suppressed by the authorities but in time will come to be viewed on a par with the writings of Lilburne
and Boulland.

Some minor clashes occur between Swedish troops and Virginians in the Ohio Valley.

Czar Peter dies and is succeeded by his son, Peter II.

1780 - King of Brazil is assassinated and the Second Republic is formed.

Polish settlers arrive on Ile-St-Jean and begin displacing the French population. Most of the refuges flee
to Gasconia, which again appeals for French assistance. As much as France wants to avoid war with
Sweden, the mood in the Estates-General is that something much be done. Even as the French fleet is
being dispatched across the Atlantic, King Gustavus IV makes a suggestion to resolve the crisis. While
staunchly opposed to both popularist or republic ideologies, he proposes that a plebiscite be held on
the island to determine its future. He knows that France would find it
difficult to proceed with action 'against the will of the people' and that there is now a Polish majority on
the island. In this, he demonstrates his almost total failure to understand the nature of popular
democracy in France and his support in his own country.

France declares war on Sweden. The Battle of Louisburg sees the French fleet destroyed by the
Swedes. Swedish forces from New Stockholm invade New England in a drive towards Gasconia.
England (after a heated debate in both Assemblies) and New France enter the war.

In Spain, Alexander dies and is succeeded by his daughter Henrietta, a weak and sickly 19-year old
(his only surviving son having died two years earlier in a riding accident). Faced with both a hostile
Cortes and nobility, Charlotte returns to the Netherlands. Queen Henrietta falls under the spell of the
charismatic leader of the Cortes, the Duke of Grenada.

The Scottish Parliament passes the second of the Irish Acts.

1781 - An attempt to overthrow the Viceroy of New Grenada fails to depose him, but the coup
attempt triggers successions across the country as many regional governors make bids for power in
their districts. Fearful of similar violence in his own territory, the Viceroy of La Platte dissolves
the Cortes and assumes direct rule.

The Battle of Jutland. The English fleet defeats the larger Swedish fleet due to superior tactics an
vessels. An English army arrives in New England and turns the tide of the campaign there. A New
French attack on Louisburg is repulsed.

The East Indies become a protectorate of the Marathian Empire. Russia reiterates its claim to the
Philippines.

1782 - In Florence, noted Dutch artist, Eric van Claver, paints his renowned masterpiece, 'Behold The
King'.

Rebellions break out in Norway and Denmark as republics are declared in these countries. English and
French troops land in support of the rebels.

1783 - Fort Christina is completely destroyed and its inhabitants massacred by native peoples. A
punitive military expedition from Fort Gotha fails to reach Christina but extracts brutal vengeance on
many of the inhabitants of the surrounding area. The Swedes blame the Virginians for inciting the tribes
and open fighting breaks out in the Ohio Valley.

New Stockholm is bombarded by the English Navy.

An assassination attempt on Peter II by an Austrian nationalist fails. 

1784 - Virginia declares war on Sweden and launches an attacks into New Sweden. New Stockholm
falls to English forces. New Warsaw falls without a fight to a French squadron. Poles in the Northern
Territories establish a 'Free Republic'. When rumours reach Gustavus that Russia, under new Czar
Dimitri, might enter the conflict, he sues for peace. Fighting in North America continues for several
months, but the conflict in Europe draws to aclose.

The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies agree an alliance with France. As a pre-requisite to the agreement, a
parliament is created in the Sicilies and a version of the Declaration of Tolerance is enacted.

The Land Party wins a majority in the Scottish Parliament. This predominantly Irish and rural party
begins making noises about a limited restoration of the monarchy on constitutional lines.

1785 - The Congress of London sees Sweden recognise the independence of Denmark and Norway
and the ceding of Iles-St-Jean to Gasconia, Louisburg to New France, Long Island to New England
and the Ohio Valley (and Fort Gotha) to Virginia. The Northern Territories are to be sold by Sweden
to France, and a protectorate is established of the Free Republic there. Immigration from Poland to the
Free Republic is still encouraged and is broadened to welcome immigrants from the Germanies,
Norway and Denmark.

[COMMENTARY: It's interesting the way that TLs take on a life of their own. There does tend to be
more than a few wars in this TL. Certainly more than I expected, but then the flash-points just keep
cropping up. Interestingly, most of the wars have tended to be quite short and limited in nature to this
point, all of which does seems to create a climate that accelerates the political and economic 'reforms'
that are taking place and re-enforcing them. In the case of this most recent conflict, things unexpectedly
developed in such a way that war between the Republics and Sweden became almost inevitable, it was
just Sweden's bad luck that it actually happened later rather than sooner. This war was very one sided,
but then Sweden faced a coalition of very strong military powers. In North America, Sweden may have
held a lot of territory on paper but in reality were extremely weak there.]

New legislation is passed in Spain, strengthening the Cortes.

1786 - Riots in Stockholm and Gothenburg are put down.

Queen Henrietta dies. The Cortes moves quickly to prevent a succession crisis and offer the throne to
the grandson of the pretender, Marcus. In return for accepting a constitution that leaves him as little
more than a figurehead, he is crowned as Philip VI.

The Land Party abandons plans to restore the Scottish monarchy.

1789 - A translation of Martine's book is published in France. While it is hotly debated by French
academics, it makes little impression on politicians or with the general public.

In England, a private publishing house begins plans to produce an English translation until they are
closed down by the Army. Even while discussions are going on in the Army Assembly to ban the book,
in the Civil Assembly Joyce Hamilton reads out selected extracts from it. When troops march to the
doors of the Civil Assembly to stop Hamilton they find doors locked against
them. General Mitchell orders his men to stand down, rather than use force in these circumstances. The
extracts are then freely reprinted by newspapers across the country

Meeting in Reading, leading Lilburnists (both military and civil, although the latter predominate) formally
organise themselves into a politic party. Alexander Tanner (the son of Geoffrey Tanner) is appointed
leader of the new party, while Hamilton is charged with drawing up a manifesto of the economic goals
for the government. This is known as the 'Progressive Manifesto' and gives rise to the party adopting
the name 'Progressives'. Their Lilburnist heritage is in part preserved in the form of the nickname
'lily-whites', (a term which incidentally will also later become the nickname of Reading's ginniball team).

1790 - In the Austrian Empire a conspiracy to assassinate the Czar is discovered. Members of
republican and nationalist movements in Romania and Serbia are implicated and mass arrests take
place.

Prince Rudolph of Bavaria, in the German Confederation, denounces the writings of Lilburne, Boulland
and Martine as the 'Three Greatest Blasphemies'. Academics and students across Europe
enthusiastically adopt this term, but keep on studying these writers.

1793 - King Gustavus dies and is succeeded by Gustavus V.

1795 - First practical steam railway begins operation in South Wales.

1798 - An attempted monarchist coup in Norway fails and a coalition of popularist factions take power
in the country.

A proposed new constitution is offered to King George of the Netherlands. When he rejects this
numerous riots take place in the major cities. A revised constitution is offered and he again rejects it as
being unacceptable.

1799 - The Virginian Viceroy visits Port Maria and is very impressed by the distinctive architecture of
the city. On his return to Charlestown he carries out extensive research into Mexican history and then
orders that a new Governors Palace be constructed along the lines of a pyramid. While this is vetoed
by the House of Burgesses, the idea captures the public's imagination and that of several local
architects. This triggers the start of a pseudo-Aztec craze in Virginia. The Viceroy finally gets work
stated on his new palace four years later.

King George abdicates and a Dutch Republic is established.

1800s - Marathian cuisine is introduced to Spain via Egypt. It becomes fashionable amongst many
Spanish nobles to have indentured Marathian servants in their household staffs.

1800 - The Triple-Crown Alliance is signed between Sweden, Russia and Austria. Despite the
long-standing hostility between Sweden and Russia, the perceived republican threat to the Divine Right
of Kings is enough to draw them together. The German Confederation establishes loose ties with
Austria. Both Gustavus and Dimitri continue to look open the other's country as being only marginally
more tolerable than the Republics are. 

1802 - Jerome Bailey invents a method of using standardised, interchangeable parts in mill machinery.
This quickly finds applications in many other areas, including weaponry. Financial support from the
English government ensures that the 'Bailey Method' becomes highly successful.

1805 -The Marathian Empire begins to make threatening noises in the direction of Vietnam. When
news reaches Moscow, the 'Philippines Question' raises its head again. Dimitri orders that a fleet be
constructed to re-assert Russian control over the islands (long ignored by the Marathians)
once and for all. This fleet is also intended to confirm Russia's claim on Alaska and to open trade with
Japan.

1806 - In England the Army Reform Bill is thrown out by the Army Assembly, although the (ultimately
far more significant) Revenues Act is passed.

The sudden death of the recently crowned Czar Peter III of Austria throws that Empire into crisis. The
highly tenuous nature of the Triple-Crown Alliance is shown when Russia supports a regency by the
Alexander Kurtzen, the Grand-Duke of Tyrol in favour of the infant Crown Prince Michael, while
Sweden supports Peter's brother Joseph. Conflict is averted by the mediation of Rudolph of Baveria,
although the now almost annual riots against Vienna take place in the Balkans.

1807 - The Cortes allows limited access to translations of the writings of Lilburne, Boulland and
Martine to selected, 'trusted' academics (in the case of Martine, these are Spanish translations of
English transcript, rather than reprints of his original work. Almost unnoticed, this allows a certain
English interpretation to come across).

1808 - The Great Pacific Fleet leaves Memel for the Far East. The Fleet safely reaches West Mysora,
but is denied permission to resupply there. Landing further up the coast to take on supplies, the sailors
are decimated by disease. Rather than risk the hostile waters of the Marathian Empire, the fleet then
sets sail westward for the Americas.

1809 - The Russian fleet is almost totally destroyed by storms when it tries to traverse the Straits of
Magellan. The few survivors finally end their long journey in La Platte. The failure of this enterprise is a
major blow to Dimitri's prestige.

1810 - Representatives from a number of townships in the eastern part of the Free Republic meet at Ny
Bergen [Kingston, Ontario] to discuss their future. The Free Republic is clearly failing with many of the
immigrants that have arrived over the last two decades moving on to Virginia (especially the Ohio
Valley) or, to a lesser extent, Gasconia. New Warsaw is now unable to
control much of the colony beyond the city itself and makes its presence known through ever increasing
tax demands. The Congress of Ny Bergen resolves to secede from the Republic and to petition
Gasconia to join in a confederation.

1811 - The New Warsaw militia fails to rally to the call to suppress the eastern townships. The crisis in
confidence in the government brings it down and the resulting riots lead to large parts of the city being
destroyed by fire. Effective government ends and the 'Free Republic' ceases to exist as a political entity.
A delegation from the new 'Ny Bergen Alliance' is welcomed in New Gascony. Religious and political
differences prevent any agreement being reached.

Marathia invades Vietnam.

1812 - Nathanial Dempsey of New Stirling, Virginia [Savannah, Georgia], acquires a licence to apply
the Bailey Method to agricultural equipment in Virginia. While far-sighted and innovative, Dempsey's
lack of business acumen leads him to bankruptcy within two years.

1814 - Sir Edward Maidment, the Earl of  New Lothian, and one of the richest landowners in Virginia
purchases the rights to Dempsey's prototype cotton gin.

1816 - The two hundredth anniversary of John Lilburne's birth is celebrated across the world. While
events are organised across France, New England, New France, the Netherlands, Norway and
Denmark, the largest celebrations are held in England. The centre-piece of this is the opening of the
Lilburne Memorial at Greenwich. The Progressives completely dominate English politics as
Washingtonians decide that the safest course of action is to keep a low profile.

1817 - A political crisis between England and Marathia almost leads to war. English traders in West
Mysora are arrested for possessing banned literature (popularist tracts). The problem is resolved with
the release of the traders and the creation of trading enclaves for foreigners in the colony.

1820 - Maidment, seeing the new cotton gin as a way of revolutionising cotton production in Virginia,
orders a reorganisation of his plantations to ensure maximum production. His plans soon run into
problems when the lack of available  labour in south and western Virginia becomes apparent.

English traders establish a settlement at Port Filmore [Walvis Bay].

1821- Following a meal at the Governor's Palace in Charlestown, Maidment hits upon the idea of
bringing in indentured servants from Marathia to work on the plantations. There is immediate opposition
across the country to this, but the most powerful opponents are several members of the House of
Burgesses. 'Conveniently' for Maidment, the 'Brabazon Club' scandal ruins the careers of these
individuals. With the aid of the Maidment fortune to enlighten any wavering representatives, the
'Immigration Act' is quickly passed.

Intense negotiations with the Marathian authorities in West Mysora result in Maidment getting an
agreement to supply cotton for the burgeoning textile industry in the province in return for a steady
supply of labour. These indentured servants will ultimately tend to be drawn from the Muslim
minority in West Mysora or from the Muslim east-African provinces of the Empire.

1823 - The first Marathians arrive in Virginia. Their arrival is greeted with race riots in Charlestown,
New Stirling and Albermarle [Norfolk, Virginia]. The reason behind the up-to-now surprising lack of
opposition from the Church is revealed as the mass-conversion of the immigrants takes places upon
their arrival. Most are willing to pay at least lip-service to their new religion, although those that refuse
to comply find themselves facing some heavy-handed persuassion. One Marathian is heard to say that
he didn't expect the Spanish Inquisition. This should not be taken to be an indication of any lack of
knowledge or education on the part of Marathians such as this individual as, of course, no-one ever
expects the Spanish Inquisition.

1824 - Elements of the English Navy at Portsmouth mutiny against their lack of representation in the
Army Assembly, pay and conditions. The mutiny is crushed by the army. A second attempt to pass the
Army Reform Bill is again blocked in the Army Assembly. Within factions of the Progressive Party,
pressure mounts for constitutional reform.

The opening of the London to Bristol Railway heralds an era of massive railway construction.

With Calais due to return to French rule in five years, negotiations begin between the English and
French governments as to the city's final disposition. It is decided that a plebiscite be held there to
determine what its citizens prefer.

Crown Prince Michael accedes to the Austrian throne. As Czar he goes down in history as Michael
The Stupid and presides over the disintegration of the Austrian Empire. One of his first acts is to
dissolve the Diet and to attempt to personally rule the empire. Vienna's always tenuous grip on the
Balkans is shattered as dozens of separate states break away and fall to fighting with each other. He
rejects offers of 'assistance' from both Sweden and Russia, rightly fearing that both 'allies' seek to pull
the strings in his country. Relations between the two other monarchies continue to deteriorate and a
year later Gustavus declares the Triple-Crown Alliance is dead. In the end, as many predicted from the
start, their mutual enmity overcomes any common ground that the two nations might have against the
Republics.

1825 - The Naval Ordinance Amendment (to the 1806 Revenues Act) is enacted giving the Civil
Assembly control of the Navy. This is broadly welcomed by both the Civil Assembly, the Navy and by
the Army.

An army coup in New Grenada establishes a military dictatorship.

1827 - The De Montfort Military College is founded in Leicester.

The Washingtonian Party reforms itself and renames itself the Land Party. It is now very closely based
on the ruling Scottish party of the same name.

1828 - The people of Calais overwhelmingly vote to remain part of England and the port is purchased
from France.

To prevent the final collapse and abandonment of New Warsaw, England (with French agreement)
takes control of the city. The following year it is renamed New Greenwich.

Edward Maidment's son, Henry, marries Angelina de la Vega, the daughter of the Viceroy. This further
consolidates the family's grip on power in Virginia.

1830s - Marathian traders begin exporting opium to Russia.

1830 - The situation in the Balkans stabilises with Serbia, Hungary and Bulgaria dominating the region.

Czar Michael is overthrown and an Austrian Republic declared. Neither Sweden and Russia intervenes,
although in the case of the latter, its pitiful economic state makes it highly unlikely that an actions of its
part could achieve anything, other than to demonstrate its weakness to its great enemy. The German
Confederation does send troops to try to restore the monarchy but despite occupying Vienna for almost
two months, are eventually forced to retire when England and France recognise the new Republic and
promise it financial and economic assistance. After this recognition quickly followsfrom the other
republics and even from Spain.

1831 - An expedition under the direction of Sir Mortimer Wheeler leaves Carolina in an attempt to
make the first overland crossing of North America. The expedition disappears without trace.

1833 - With the Civil Assembly keeping an ever increasingly tight grip on the purse strings, the Army
Assembly finally passes a watered down version of the Army Reform Act. General Rogers, First
speaker of the Army Assembly mournfully declares in a speech that 'The day of the solider is coming to
anend. The future belongs to the merchant and the banker.'

1835 - Dutch author, Simon van der Kemp (best known for a series of historical adventure stories set
during the Great European War) writes an alternate history novel set in a world in which the Tulip
Conspiracy was not discovered. While the book is not particularly well received, it will in the future be
of interest to fans of the genre.

Edward Maidment dies and his son assumes his titles and control of the Company.

Mohammed Aziz circumnavigates the Great Southern Island [Australia].

1836 - The Cortes pushes through land reform in Spain.

The constitution of the Dutch Republic is changed to extend the franchise to women that meet the
property qualifications. Other republics follow suit although it takes some time for this to become the
norm amongst the European republics (Norway 1840, Denmark 1842, France 1850, England 1879,
Scotland 1903, Northumberland 1917).

North-west Virginia is organised as Ohio Province. Fort Gotha is renamed Gotham City.

1839 - The steamer, Archon crosses the Atlantic (travelling from Liverpool to Boston).

Maidment blocks a bid by a group of Charlestown merchants to gain a licence to use the Bailey
Method. The courts rule in favour of the Virginian Cotton Company having exclusive rights to the
application of such assembly techniques throughout Virginia. As Maidment has no interest in anything
other than cotton production, this stifles economic growth in all other areas. The culture of Virginia is
such that (with the possible exception of Ohio) business and commercial activities are looked down on
as not being fit enterprises for a gentleman.

Marathia attempts to open trade with China but its efforts are rebuffed. Attempts to do so by force two
years later are repelled. A third expedition (planned for 1846) is later cancelled.

1840 - Coal miners in South Wales demand greater rights claiming that as the originators of the wealth,
then under 'true' Lilburnist principles, then they should also be the ones to derive the benefit of their
labours. They are lead by Lynn Thomas and their banner adds blood red to the sea-green ofthe national
flag. When the Army breaks up their meetings, Thomas seeks sanctuary in the regional assembly in
Cardiff. Unwilling to enter the Assembly, the Army lay siege to the building and in doing so makes
Thomas' demands a cause célèbre. The stand-off is finally resolved when George Yelland, the First
Speaker of the Civil Assembly, promises Thomas and his
followers immunity for any charges of treason and sedition (but not for any crimes that they might have
committed against persons or property) and that a Commission will be formed to reform the causes of
the injustices.

Henry Maidment introduces the 'Ball-Game' to his plantations and factories as a means of improving
morale and appeasing his workers (his wife being a big fan of the game). He, or rather one of his staff,
codifies the rules for the first time leading to it in time becoming known as the Virginia Ball Game (or
ginniball). These rules, modified over the years will become standard across the world, with the
exception of Carolina, where they will obstinately cling to their 'original' rules for 'Carolina Ball'.

In Essen, Walter Schilling writes the first of his many renowned symphonies.

James Johnson becomes the first explorer to reach the Pacific coast overland.

Mohammed Aziz disappears on his second voyage of exploration in the Southern Ocean. His ships are
run aground and wrecked on the coast of New Zealand's North Island. The survivors are assimilated
into the Maori population bringing with them significant technological knowledge.

1841 - The Mines, Mills and Factories Reform Act is passed in England.

The 'Radicals' break away from the Progressive Party. This party emphasises the rights of the common
workers and champions their cause.

George Yelland, addresses the Estates-General in Paris praises the friendship and co-operation that
exists between the two republics and comments on how popularist republics don't go to war with each
other (using the logic that New France was in the grip of a military dictatorship and therefore didn't
qualify at the time of the war between that nation and the other republics).

1842 - Tunisia is formally incorporated into France with full representation in the Estates-General. The
western Mediterranean will ultimately effectively become a French lake.

1843 - Wales adopts a new flag consisting of a red dragon on a green field.

1844 - A commission charged with investigating the possibility of building a rail-link between Calais and
the rest of the country, concludes that at the present time it is beyond existing engineering capabilities.
Research and development into the project continues.

1845 - Thanks to a combination of natural resources, a meritocratic society, the application of the
Bailey Method and Hamiltonian Economics (based upon Joyce Hamilton's application of Martine's
basic principles), England is becoming the 'Workshop of the World'. To demonstrate England's
industrial and economic might, a Great Exhibition is planned for 1848.

[In this TL, some of the causes and effects of the industrial revolution differ, whilst others are very
similar to OTL. Either way, it just happens that England is the first great beneficiary and I don't think it
too implausible that this TL would also see a Great Exhibition at approximately the same time].

The red Cross of St. George is restored to the English flag (but the green field is retained). When the
Welsh continue to use the dragon flag rather than the new official flag they are roundly condemned in
the Assembly. Eventually a compromise is arrived at by which Wales is authorised in some
circumstances to also fly a modified version of the new Republican flag that has a dragon is each
canton. This is only used for a few years until the 'Drgagon Flag' finally triumphs.

A team of ginniball players (drawn from the Virginian Cotton Company) arrive in Spain to play a
demonstration game for the Royal Court. They then go on a highly successful tour of the Republics. The
game proves extremely popular with urbanites where-ever they go and spreads like wildfire.

Marathia suffers a succession crisis after plague decimates Delhi and claims the lives of the Imperial
Family.

1846 - Civil War breaks out in the Marathian Empire between Muslims and Hindus. West Mysora
quickly seizes control of the East African coast and heavy fighting breaks out in Arabia between
Mysorans and forces from Pakistan. The heart of the Empire itself, dissolves into a patchwork of hostile
principalities. The East Indies cuts off contact with the rest of the Empire.

The trade of cotton from Virginia to Mysora drops dramatically. Even though England still remains as a
major customer for Virginian cotton, the effect on the economy is still devastating. Many people (with a
great deal of justification) blame the Maidment-Vegas for their plight.

Following a meeting in Rouen, the Republics agree not to become involved in the Marathian War. All
parties agree to allow trade to continue unhindered with either side (or to both sides) in the conflict.
Spain and Scotland also signal that they will follow a similar policy.

Military rule comes to an end in New Grenada with the peaceful establishment of a new Vice-Royality
under New Spanish protection.

1847 - The House of Burgesses resolves to raise an army to send to the assistance of the Mysorans.
This is despite the fact that it is very apparent to all but the Burgesses that Virginia is ill equipped for
such a venture. Charlestown's decision is not enthusiastically welcomed in the
provincial capitals of Port Maria, Habana or Gotham. News of the religious war in Marathia and that
Virginia is supporting Mysora, triggers revolts amongst the indentured servants.

Spain orders the recall of the Virginian Viceroy to Madrid. England places the steamer Atalanta, the
fastest vessel on the Trans-Atlantic run, at the Spanish government's disposal for this purpose.

The Dutch National Gallery sends 'Behold The King' on a tour of European capitals. While in England it
is stolen in a daring robbery from a moving train. [See the movie, 'The First Great Train Robbery' for an
idea of how it was done].

1848 - The Viceroy of Virginia returns to Charlestown with instructions from Madrid that he is to
immediately dissolve the House of Burgesses and demobilise the forces that Virginia had begun to build
up. In front of a packed House, the Viceroy rips up the 'intolerable dictate' and announces
that since 1770 Virginia has been a free and sovereign nation and that the day has finally come when
Madrid and the World must recognise this fact. He announces that he will not dissolve the Government
and that he is leaving the matter in the hands of the Burgesses. The ensuing vote is overwhelmingly in
favour of rejecting Spain's 'suggestions'. The western provinces all vote against the motions for war, but
make up such a small proportion of the House as to make no difference.

The Great Exhibition is held at the Crystal Pavilion at Greenwich (it had originally been suggested that it
be called the Crystal Palace, but that was very quickly rejected on the basis of sounding too
monarchist). The exhibition is disrupted by riots in London over the poor living conditions in the slums
of the city. Many people put the blame on agitators from the Radical Party and the now almost
legendary 'Red' Thomas.

A special commission is established under the direction of Edmund Carstairs to investigate the courses
of the disturbances.

Mysoran forces are driven out of Arabia as the victorious Pakistani forces begin to move on to 'liberate'
East Africa. Muslim forces are faring less well in the heart of Empire although no side is achieving any
clear supremacy in the fighting. India is experiencing a level of devastation comparable to that which
was inflicted on Europe over two centuries earlier. The East Indies withdraw their troops from Vietnam
but does send a squadron to the Philippines to re-establish control of the island chain. This is in
response to the arrival of traders from New Spain, eager to secure a new trade route across the Pacific
given the current perilous nature of the Indian Ocean.

The Ny Bergen Alliance becomes an English protectorate.

1849 - Word reaches the capitals of the western provinces of events in Charlestown. A meeting of the
leading citizens of Port Maria resolves to send a delegation to Spain to ask the Emperor to intervene.
The party leaves Port Maria on the English steamer, Hotspur bound for Europe, only to beintercepted
and boarded by a Virginian naval vessel. The delegates are arrested and taken to Charlestown to
answer charged of treason. The reaction in Carolina is to raise the flag of the rebellion of 1728 over
Port Maria once again. The Provincial Council announces it union with Virginia at an end while the latter
is in a state of insurrection against the crown.

Virginian forces seize Habana to prevent the Caribbean following Carolina's example.

England protests over the boarding of the Hotspur and bans the importation of Virginia cotton creating
an economic crisis in Virginia.

A major uprising of indentured servants breaks out across Virginia (it is later estimated as being three
times the size of the one two years earlier). This actually helps save the Virginian government which
would otherwise have faced a revolt of the nobility and merchant factions. The rebels manage to take
control of New Stirling and form a reactionary republican government for the city.

Persia enters the war against Pakistan, driving deep into the country. With its opponent's forces
suddenly cut off from supplies, Mysora is able to reverse the course of the war in East Africa.

1850s - France rapidly industrialises.

1850 - New Stirling falls to Virginian forces after almost two months in rebel hands. The Virginian army
(that had originally been raised to fight in Africa) marches on Carolina. It arrives at Port Maria only to
find that volunteers have swelled the Carolinian army. Despite being out-numbered, the Virginians
initially hold the upper hand and manage to lay siege to Port Maria until the arrival of reinforcements
from New Spain arrive. The Virginian forces are destroyed and the survivors retreat, in poor order, for
home, with the Carolinians and the New Spanish in pursuit.

Meanwhile, back in Gotham City ... [sorry, couldn't resist it] the Ohian Provincial Council also breaks
away from Virginia but takes no offensive action.

Spain sends an ultimatum to Virginia demanding it submit to a series of demands or it will declare war.
England and France make public their support for Spain's actions.

Russia attempts to invade Marathia but is quickly tied down in fighting in Afghanistan.

With the East African coast now back in its hands (as far north as Eritrea) the exhausted Mysoran
forces halt their counter attacks. Their hold on most of the territory is tenuous at best but at present they
face little opposition to their occupation.

Schilling dies in Düsseldorf halfway through his ninth symphony. It will be known as the 'Unfinished
Symphony' until Walter Kendrise completes it (as the 'Calais Symphony') in 1927.

1851 - Lynn Thomas is assassinated while addressing a crowd of Radical Party supporters in Cardiff.
The assassin is quickly caught and claims to be a member of a secret society called the 'Sons of
Washington', although no evidence is ever found that such an organisation currently exists. It does
further reduce the standing of the Land Party across the country and especially in Wales (which is firmly
in the Radical camp by now). Thomas' name lives on for future generations when the central square in
Cardiff is named Thomas Square after the city's redevelopment at the end of the century (as well as the
usual erecting of statues and the future naming of schools and of course of Cardiff's university). [For
anyone keeping track of the
ginniball references I keep throwing in, Cardiff's team will ultimately be called the 'Reds' after Red
Thomas.]

One major impact of the assassination is to seriously bring into question the standing practice of leaving
'police' duties to the local militias. While the Cardiff Militia is quickly exonerated of involvement, the
idea of leaving the business of law and order in the hands of the Army becomes
politically unacceptable very fast. The first Civil Watches are created in London and Cardiff (in 1853
and 1854 respectively) and by 1870 can be found in most communities.

Back in Virginia, with its army in tatters and its economy in ruins, the House of Burgesses orders the
arrest of Maidment (who becomes the scapegoat for just about everything) and tries to open
negotiations with Madrid. With many people thinking that it is acting too slowly and with a virtual civil
war raging, a group of merchants, with the backing of the army organise a coup. The resulting 'Republic
of Virginia' (which only has effective control of the major cities and surrounding areas) agrees to most
of Madrid's terms. The major point of contention is the Spanish demands for the recognition of the
suzerainty of the Crown.

The advancing Carolinian and New Spanish forces cease their advance and the Virginia evacuates
Habana. The independence of Carolina, the Caribbean and Ohio are recognised by the Great Powers.
The 'Republic' of Virginia presents something of a diplomatic embarrassment however. Neither England
or France want to jeopardise their cordial relations with Spain by recognising the
republic, but they are obviously pleased to see the end of a monarchy anywhere. The Republics (with
the exception of New England and New France) opt for a policy of 'wait and see'.

After almost a decade of war, 'New Zealand' is unified under a pseudo-Muslim monarch that was able
to fully exploit the arrival of the stranded Marathian sailors.

1852 - The Carstairs Commission releases its findings. It reveals that the condition of the urban poor
and the demands of industrialisation are creating a climate of social instability and rising crime. The
Great Exhibition Riots are blamed on spontaneous acts by certain elements of the populace and no
evidence is found of organised insurrection or revolutionary activities. The Commission's
recommendations fall short of many of the Radical's demands, which are for a broadening of the
franchise [it should be noted that it is already more widely available than in OTL] and the complete
urban renewal of the city slums. It also goes far too far for the Land Party
by suggesting a number of pieces of social legislation (the Factory Reforms Act, the Urban Housing
Act, the Public Order Act etc).

Pakistan collapses under Persian attacks and submits to occupation.

In the face of mounting domestic opposition and the total failure of its army, Russia abandons its
offensive in Afghanistan. The secret police uncover the 'Opium Plot', leading to a purge of many
members of the nobility.

1853 - After months of debating and horse-trading, the Civil Assembly accepts the findings of the
Carstairs Report.

Fighting finally ends in India with the general exhaustion of the combatants. The sub-continent breaks up
into numerous competing small states.

The government of Virginia falls apart as in proves incapable of exercising control over the country.
Spanish troops land to take control of the major cities. A new Viceroy is selected from one of
Maidment's former opponents and the House of Burgesses is reconstituted. However, parts in rural
areas the only order is supplied by the almost feudal local nobility who refuse to acknowledge the
legitimacy of the new government.

1854 - A new Revenues Act is passed to pay for the proposed social reform in England. This has the
effect of cutting army spending and freezing naval spending.

An expedition from New Spain lands of the coast of the Great Southern Island [near OTL's Cape
York Peninsular] and claim it for New Spain.

Cynthia Porter, wife of Representative Roger Porter (PP, Brighton and Hove), scandalises English
society with her wearing of trousers at public events. She does, however, set a new trend and it is one
that will go in and out of fashion from this point on.

1855 - English troops arrive in Virginia to assist the Spanish occupation forces. Spain is happy to have
someone to do the fighting for them, particularly in the predominantly anglophone Virginia and the
English Army sees this as a way to generate some much needed revenue. While in England there is
much grumbling in both the Civil and Army Assemblies over the idea of the Army supporting a
monarchy, everyone agrees that it is a good way to keep the troops occupied and more importantly a
way to finance the military. 

The East Indies abandons control of the Philippines which falls into in-fighting between various local
nobles.

The Civil Assembly passes the Public Order Act.

1856 - An expedition leaves Fort Campbell, Carolina [St Louis, Mo.] to map the west.

The new government in Virginia falls apart as the House of Burgesses proves incapable of meeting any
of the many demands placed upon it. It is replaced by direct rule by the Viceroy. To bring peace to his
troubled country he offers major concessions to the rebellious planters in the hinterlands, making legal
the autonomy that most of them were already exercising. English and Spanish troops are still needed
however to maintain order and to prevent local officials from abusing their power.

English traders secure the rights to control Mysoran trade in East Africa. The main trading post is
located in Zanzibar.

1858 - Spain replaces the Viceroy of Virginia and issues a new constitution which is surprisingly close
to that of Gasconia. The House of Burgesses meets for the first time in two years but now, unlike in
1856, it is dominated by the rural nobility, with the urban elites very under-represented. Madrid's view
is that while the new system is a very long way from satisfactory, it is the only way forward.

1859 - In England, the Factory Reforms Act and the Urban Housing Act are passed. Russia begins a
very modest series of reforms of its army.

France launches the world's first ironclad, 'La Victorie'.

1860s - Former Marathian heartland stabilises into the territories of the Marathian Confederation, the
Peshwa League and the Cholasia.

Also during this decade, Brazil begins to industrialise and institutes numerous political reforms.

1860 - 'The Squatters War'. For a number of years 'squatter' settlers have been moving into western
New Sweden, primarily from the Ny Bergen Alliance and Gasconia. This had been tolerated by the
colonial government in New Stockholm until the community of Johannsbergh [Glenn Falls, NY]
petitions to join the NBA. A brutal attack on the town by the militia, brings the NBA into conflict with
the colony.

Sweden is unable to provide any support to its colony and New Sweden is forced to deal with the
rebellion without outside assistance. While colonial authorities suspect that both the rebels and the NBA
are receiving weapons and supplies from New France and Gasconia, they turn a blind eye to it, fearing
an escalation of the conflict.

1861 - New Spain throws its support behind one of the Philippine factions, tipping the balance in their
favour. In return, New Spain gains exclusive trading rights and the islands retain their independence.

1862 - Tax Riots in Charlestown are brutally put down. The English garrison in the city remains
confined to barracks during this. Back in England, questions are asked in the Assembly as to just what
type of government England is supporting there.

1863 - England offers to mediate in the Squatters War. With an English army in Virginia and growing
discontent amongst merchants that increased taxes are damaging trade, New Sweden appeals to its
homeland to accept this offer. Reluctantly, Stockholm complies and sees the western-most parts of
New Sweden shorn off. Although 'Appalacia' is nominally independent, it is very closely tied to the
NBA in all but name and also benefits from English protection. Most of the English garrisons in Virginia
are transferred to Appalacia and to the NBA.

1864 - New Spain plants as colony on the Great Southern Island (near the site of the 1854 expedition).
The colony is named Gran Frontera.

Spanish troops are withdrawn from Virginia.

1865 - In Russia, the Czar blocks any further reform of the army, fearing that it may act against him if it
becomes too powerful. Russia is once again subjected to a series of purges that eliminate anyone with
any real ability to manage the affairs of the country.

All English troops are withdrawn from Virginia.

1866 - War between the German Confederation and Poland, now the major power in the area (thanks
more to the decline of Sweden and Russia , than by its own increase in strength) is averted only by the
Germans backing down on the issue of customs levies. Many in Poland see this as a missed opportunity
to demonstrate Polish resurgence on the world stage.

1869 - The Assembly Chambers in London (originally the Palace of Westminster) are destroyed by
fire.

1870s - Extremist groups in Virginia start targeting Marathians, blaming them for the country's
economic ills. Virginian businesses fall increasingly under the control of Dutch and Scottish commercial
interests.

During this decade France's economic strength overtakes that of England.

1870 - The first experiments are carried out in England of an electric telegraph.

An alliance of the National Party and the Sons of Ireland defeats the Land Party in the Scottish
elections.

A railroad is completed linking Metropolis [Cleveland], Ohio and Utopia [Buffalo], NBA. This allows
produce from the mid-west to make the journey to the east and then on to Europe in a much shorter
time. Most produce travels from Utopia to Ny Bergen by paddle steamer and then on to either New
Greenwich or Boston.

The French steamship, Espirit d'Lyons sets a new trans-atlantic record in its voyage from Libreville to
Boulogne.

1871 - The Ohian Provincial Council funds an expedition to the west in a bid to prevent Carolina from
totally dominating the as yet unorganised territories. They are prevented from traversing the continent by
the Lokotah Nation, one of a number of well organised Native American nations (including the
Blackfoot and Cree Nations) that have formed in the west, largely following contact with traders from
New Greenwich and its predecessors.

The typewriter is invented (but not with a qwerty keyboard).

The third and fourth Irish Acts are passed by the Scottish Parliament. The Parliamentary Reform Act
fails to pass however.

Pakistan unsuccessfully rebels against Persian rule. The Persian response is extremely brutal and almost
brings intervention from the Marathian Confederation.

Talks begin in Ny Bergen with a view to reforming the Alliance to meet present day realities. When it
becomes apparent that both Appalacia and Gasconia are interested in closer ties with the Alliance, it is
decided to hold a conference in the near future to discuss confederation.

1872 - King John-Philip II of Spain makes a state visit to England and becomes the first monarch to do
so since the formation of the republic. He is given a very warm welcome (it the best senses of the term)
and his visit is universally seen as a success. Such protests as there are, are very low
key and pass peacefully. John-Phillip also visits Scotland, successfully mending fences between the two
nations.

1873 - The English flag is altered slightly with the addition of a white border to the red cross.

A war between La Platte and Brazil is avoided following intensive negotiation. The Malvinas [Falkland
Islands] are sold to Brazil. 

1874 - The Ny Bergen Alliance is formally dissolved and is reconstituted as
the Republic of Ny Bergen.

The National Party gains clear control of Parliament in Scotland.

The new Assembly Buildings open in London.

Charles X of Sweden is forced to introduce reforms following opposition to the autocracy of the
monarchy. Poland sees this as the perfect time to break its alliance with Sweden. The German
Confederation now finds itself in the situation Poland was in 150 years earlier as it is surrounded by
enemies and there are no potential allies to be found. Much as Poland was forced to do, it picks the
lesser evil and in this case proposes union with Austria. This offer is rejected by the Republic.

The Virginian House of Burgesses passes a series of Acts limiting the rights of Marathians within the
country.

The Maoris begin to conduct long-range ocean voyages and discover Antarctica (but don't linger
there).

1875 - In a speech at a meeting in New Stirling, Mohammed Dutt declares that Virginia as it current
stands will never open its hearts to his people and that they must forge a homeland of their own. He
states that they can either try to build such a land within Virginia or find a new home. He
warned that the first course of action would bring ruination upon everyone and urged all peoples of
Marathian origin to go west. The meeting is raided by the militia minutes later and although  Dutt
escapes, several people are killed.

Answering Dutt's call, societies are formed in the Marathian communities in all of Virginia's cities to plan
their exodus. It is later calculated that some 50 - 60% of Marathians within Viriginia will migrate
westwards over the next ten years.

Scotland's Parliament is reformed after the successful passage of the Parliamentary Reform Act.
Provincial Assemblies are set up in Ireland (Ulster, Connacht, Leinster and Munster) and for the
Highlands and The Isles.

Prince Karl of Baveria is overthrown by a popular republic rebellion. The German Confederation is
dissolved and in its place a North German League is formed. Both Saxony and Baveria become
independent.

1877 - A conference is held on Ile-St-Jean, Gasconia. It is attended by representatives from the
Appalacia, the Ny Bergen, New Greenwich, New France, New England as well as the host country.
Ultimately, the delegates are unable to resolve all the issues that are raised.

A telegraph cable is laid under the Channel, linking London and Calais. Paris is added to the network
the following year, to be quickly followed by most European capitals.

'Michelle's of Dunkirk', a leading Dutch fashion house, introduces the midi-length skirt. They prove
popular in the Netherlands and Westphalia, but are banned in England and France as offending public
decency. The French ban is lifted the following year, but the English hold out until 1885. During this
time, hemlines continue to rise across Europe.

1878 - The Italian League unites northern Italy under French patronage. Only the Papal States and
Venice remain independent.

A pro-monarchist counter-revolution in Baveria fails but the country remains on the brink of civil war.
 
1879 - The New Greenwich Conference. New Greenwich, Ny Bergen, Appalacia and Gasconia agree
to unite in a loose confederation the following year. Ny Bergen is to be separated into two provinces to
prevent the new confederation being totally dominated by one province. The area north of the Lakes
retains the name of Ny Bergen, while the area to the south becomes the new Province of Iroquoia (with
its capital at Utopia).

The name chosen for the new nation after confederation takes place is to be the United Provinces of
Kanada.

Dutt arrives in Port Maria and tries to persuade the authorities there to allow the creation of a
Marathian state within Carolina, possibly in the unsettled west. The government agrees to sell some land
which is named 'Marathistan' [northern Oklahoma and southern Kansas]. Some Marathians prefer to
remain in Port Maria, further adding ot the cosmopolitan nature of the city.

Women are granted the right to vote in England.

Baveria again approaches Austria about the prospect of union. This time negotiations are successful and
on 1 January 1880, Baveria joins the 'Austrian Confederation'.

1880 - The Commonwealth of Kanada comes into existence.

[At this time the map of North America is roughly as follows (although most borders are still somewhat
fluid):

Commonwealth of Kanada:

Gasconia: western NB, Maine, PEI
Ny Bergen: southern Ontario
Iroquoia: western New York, north-western Pennsylvania
New Greenwich: Quebec, northern Ontario (at least on paper)
Appalacia: Vermont, central New York, central Pennsylvania


The other nations of North America are:

New England: Mass. Conn. RI, Long Island, New Hampshire

New France: Nova Scotia, eastern NB

New Spain: Mexico, California, Utah, western Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas

Carolina: Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Kansas, eastern Colorado,
Nebraska, southern Iowa, western Kentucky, western Tennessee.

Ohio: Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, northern Iowa, Wisconsin, south-eastern Minnesota

Virginia: Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, eastern Kentucky, eastern
Tennessee, south-eastern Pennsylvania, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama

New Sweden: eastern New York (not including Long Island), New Jersey, eastern Pennsylvania

Lokotah Nation: North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, Montana

Cree Nation: eastern Sask., Manitoba

Blackfoot Nation: Alberta, western Sask.

The pacific north-west and BC is still considered to be 'unexplored'. Alaska is claimed by Russia but
there is no Russian presence there.]

In Virginia, the government places more restrictions on Marathians. Many of those people that had
decided not to leave the country begin to believe that force will be necessary to secure their rights after
a peaceful demonstration in Albermarle is broken up by a cavalry charge.

Scholars at the University of Madrid publish a periodic table of elements. 

A Maori expedition form New Zealand 'discovers' Tasmania. A colony is planted there two years later.

1881 - In England there are signs that society might be becoming more liberal, but that this is far from
universally welcomed. On the positive side a Monarchist Party is allowed to be formed (although it is so
small as to be inconsequential). Unfortunately the less tolerent side of English
society is shown during the obscenity trial of Graham Perrin (author of 'A Gentleman's Travels'). A mob
storms the court room and tars and feathers Perrin.

Scotland elects its first Prime Minister to come from Ireland.

1882 - Sweden decides to cut its losses with New Sweden and abandons the colony, granting it
independence over the objections of the colonial authorities. When the governing council resigns,
administration of the newly independent country is taken over by a council composed of local
merchants.

Dutt is arrested in Charlestown on his return to Virginia.

1883 - Work starts on a tunnel to link Calais with the rest of England. [The design of the tunnel is
similar of those proposed in OTL at around the same time and which I found in Marcus Rowland's
Forgotten Futures collection.]

The city of Crossroads [Cincinnati], on the border of Ohio, Virginia and Carolina is devestated by
floods. Crossroads will go on to be best know as the setting for the popular 1980s sit-com of the same
name about a family of extremely wealthy hotel magnates. The "Who Shot Miss Diane?" episode went
on to attract record viewing figures.

In England, the Radical Party gains a slim majority (by all of one seat) in the Civil Assembly. The
Progressives still hold the Army Assembly.

1884 - The Kanadian Cartographical Society is formed.

In Virginia, Dutt is found guilty of treason and subversion against the state. The civil disturbances that
mark the announcement of the death sentence are minor, but the 'white' backlash to the disturbances
isn't. Authorities turn a blind eye as lynchings of Marathians take place across the country. Oscar
Maidment attempts to protest against the violence when he addresses the House of Burgesses, but has
a coin thrown in his face and loses the use of his left eye.

Support for violent resistance amongst the remaining Marathians in Virginia grows and centres on its 
most vocal proponent, Tariq Azim. In a tragic irony, Dutt becomes a martyr for a cause that he had
always counselled against.

The Radical Party puts through tax increases to fund major public works such as the Severn Bridge and
the National Canal Network. Plans for a radical overhaul of the layout of London are also
commissioned. Interestingly, just about the only project that they don't want to throw money at is the
Channel Tunnel.

Inspired by its perceptions of the Radical Party south of the border, workers in the Northumbrian city
of Carlisle organise a Workers Council (effectively a trade union). The authorities are quick to ruthlessly
stamp out any attempt to organise any body of labour and the 'ringleaders' are arrested. The
Combination Acts are passed [these are almost identical to the acts of the same name that were
enacted in OTL in England during the Napoleonic Wars].

1885 - The North Sea Treaty is signed between Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands and Westphalia.

In England the Radical Party announces plans to tax the Army's income. This unites the Progressives
and the Land Party in opposition and has some in the Army Assembly publicly threatening to remove
the government from office as it is 'clearly not fit to hold its position'. First Speaker Evelyn Tuttle (Rad,
Sheffield) is placed under house arrest by the Army and is forced to
resign. The opposition (backed by some of the more moderate of the Radicals) are quick to act, calling
a new election in a bid to reassert civil government before the Army can try to resume total control
again. The elections see the Progressives back in power but the Land Party has its best showing for
years. The Radical Party's brief spell in control of the country is viewed as an unmitigated disaster and
membership and support drops dramatically (except in Wales). [I can't say that English politics are
starting to swing towards the 'right' because in this TL the terms 'left'
and 'right' have no political connotations, but England is definitely becoming more conservative
politically].

Juan Carmen, the Duke of California, circumnavigates the Great Southern Island. Despite the fact that
Mohammed Aziz did exactly the same feat fifty years earlier, this is still greeted as a great triumph.

Carolina halts any further immigration of Marathians from Virginia.

The Kanadian Constitution Amendment Act is passed allowing for the provision of New England and
New France to join the confederation at a later date.

'Maxwell's Theories' are discovered by a research team at the Trinity University in Dublin, Scotland.
Their research drew heavily on earlier Spanish work in this field.

1886 - Ny Bergen becomes an affiliate signatory to the North Sea Treaty. This means that although
Kanada as a nation has participated in no alliances as a nation, Ny Bergen has a treaty with the North
Sea Nations and is also an English Protectorate, New Greenwich is officially still an English colony,
while Gasconia holds the same status in regards to France.

The Mysoran government hires English troops as it attempts to pacify the interior. In one encounter, a
small number of English soldiers hold off overwhelming numbers of Zulus in the defence of a small
trading post [just making sure that the movie 'Zulu' still gets made in this TL :-)]. The overall fighting
ability and ferocity of the English contingents throughout the conflict leads to the Mysorans dubbing
them 'The Green Devils'.

[These are exclusively English troops as, since 1862, no Welsh troops have been involved in overseas
operations. This is as a direct result of the Welsh Assembly voting in an annual stipend for the units
based in Wales. A small number of Welshmen do enlist with English units and of course there are a
disproportionately high number of Welsh engineers attached to all units.]

Sven 'the Greek' Ingolfsson leads a coup that overthrows the ruling council of New Sweden. A new
body assumes control and appeals to Kanada for annexation. After much debate the National
Assembly rules that the Constitution Amendment Act could apply in this situation and New Sweden is
accepted into the fold. Appalacia and New Greenwich are strongly opposed to this, but in the end, it is
the fear that Virginia would annex the colony if nothing was done, that determines the final decision.

New Sweden's joining Kanada acts as a major boost to the pro-confederation factions in New England
and New France as neither Boston nor Libreville wants to see New Stockholm corner the shipping of
Kanadian and Ohian exports to Europe.

In Charlestown, two Members of the House of Burgesses are killed when a bomb is thrown at their
carriage. Another Member (and his family) escapes unharmed when his mansion in Roddingham
[Philadelphia] is burnt down. The government's response is place severe restrictions on the rights of all
Marathians. Internal passports and identity  papers are introduced.

Talks in London between New Greenwich and England over the future disposition of Newfoundland
break down without agreement.

1887 - Azim narrowly avoids capture by the Virginian authorities and escapes to Carolina, only to be
arrested in San Jose [Nashville] while trying to rob a bank (he is trying to get money for 'the cause').
Virginia demands his extradition. This places the governments in the difficult position of not wanting to
offend either its neighbour or the people of its Marathistan province. Azim has no support in
Marathistan, but doesn't mean that they would be happy to see him sent back to Virginia. In the end,
the government insists that he stands trial for his crimes in Carolina.

The Welsh Assembly passes a law requiring that all official documents be in both the English and Welsh
languages. The issue of the legality of this action is raised in the National Assembly, but is allowed to
stand.

Contact is made between a New Spanish ship and a Maori one on the high seas leads to a brief and
inconclusive skirmish. The New Spaniards reports of a strange, full-rigged multi-hulled vessel are
dismissed by the authorities. 

1888 - The Channel Tunnel Project, already beset by engineering difficulties, encounters new problems
when the merchants of Calais gain a court injunction, fearing that the facilities on the new, artificial
mid-channel island (which as yet is unnamed) will effect their businesses.

The world's first professional ginniball league is established in Ohio. The Christina Athletic Club takes
the inaugural title.

Azim is sentenced to ten years for his part in armed robbery. His support in Virginia declines, both due
to his absence and the harsh measures adopted by the authorities.

French engineer, Claude Rouillard leaves his native country (and all of his debts) and emigrates to Spain
to pursue his research into internal combustion engines.

A move by some in the Cornish Assembly to follow Wales lead and to recognise the Cornish language
is soundly defeated by the Land Party majority there. 

1889 - A New Spanish ship surveys the south-east coast of the Great Southern Island [NSW and
Victoria].

An expedition from La Platte fails to reach the South Pole.

1890's - Spain's economy overtakes that of France.

1890 - A raid by the authorities an the home of Count Fernando Martelli outside of Milan uncovers
several missing works of art, the most famous of which is van Claver's 'Behold The King'. The Count
manages to stay one step ahead of the authorities and disappears from sight.

Bartholomew St John (later revealed to be a pseudonym of economic theorist Robert Jerome)
publishes 'The Economic Outlook of the English Enterprise'. This work passes unnoticed by most
people and is largely dismissed by those that do read it for its pessimistic projections and warnings. The
term 'The English Enterprise' as a way of referring to England's merchantile practices does enjoy some
popularity, in no small part due to its usage in the speeches to the Assembly of the charismatic
Representative Norman Gower (LP, Yorkshire East Riding).

The Radical Party of Wales (RPoW) formally splits from the main 'English' Radical Party. They do
normally continue to vote with the RP in most matters.

1891 - Work resumes on the Channel Tunnel after a compromise agreement is arrived at between the
Calais Assembly and the Channel Tunnel Company.

The Rouillard-Montoya internal combustion engine is perfected. The rail companies show no interest in
the design and it is a financial failure. Rouillard flees his creditors and travels to Kanada.

1892 - The Channel Tunnel disaster. 49 workmen die when the tunnel floods. All work is halted
pending a full investigation into the project. Several minor investors pull out.

New Spain acquires the treaty port of Jakarta. Almost overnight this becomes the focus of their trading
activity in the area with disastrous consequences for the Gran Frontera colony as people and
commercial operations abandon the colony.

Düsseldorf hosts an international trade fair. The spectacular 'Düsseldorf Pavilion' is regarded as far
surpassing the Crystal Pavilion (which is now forty-four years old and starting to look just a little a bit
shabby. Radio transmissions are demonstrated for the first time at the fair.

The motion picture is invented in the Netherlands. However, much of its early development will takes
place in Westphalia.

New France votes to join Kanada. As part of the deal that is finally agreed, England sells
Newfoundland [this is just the island, Labrador is part of New Greenwich] to the Kanadian government
who then cede it to New France.

1893 - New England joins Kanada despite the fact that a significant minority oppose this move.

The House of Burgesses debates the forced 'repatriation' of Marathians. However, no-one can find
anywhere to send them. Mysora is out of the question and while they would be welcomed in
Marathistan, the Carolina government wouldn't allow this to happen. With levels of violence dropping
and with no clear leader to unite the Marathian minority, the House decides not to follow through with
any such plan.

Persia withdraws from the Arabian peninsular and the Kingdom of Arabia is formed.

1894 - Aware that Paris lacks any great monument to rival the architectural masterpieces of London or
Düsseldorf, the French government commissions designs for a Paris Monument. Amongst the rejected
designs are plans for a tower ('an ugly eyesore that would blight the city's skyline') and for a statue
(meant to symbolise liberty, although some felt that a giant reclining naked lady wouldn't be entirely
appropriate seeing as how they weren't Dutch). However, everyone admitted that the statue 'would be
easier on the eye than that awful tower design'. In the end it is decided to build a bigger and more
ornate version of the Düsseldorf Pavilion at Verseilles.

1895 - The Kemp Enquiry into the Channel Tunnel lists a whole raft of design flaws, construction
problems and safety concerns. The government reluctantly orders work to be halted. The Calais
Assembly then sues the National Assembly for damages and almost to everyone's surprise the action is
successful. A pro-independence movement is organised in Calais although its popular support is very
small.

In England a knock-out ginniball competition for the 'English Cup' takes place for the first time. Halifax
defeats Bristol in the final at the Greenwich Courts. Attendance at the final is poor due to the
unexpected absence of both the home-town Pavilions and pre-tournament favourites, Reading. Halifax
are then heavily defeated by the touring SC Port Maria in both games of a two game series, one played
under the regular ginniball rules and the other one under Carolina Rules.

New Spain celebrates 120 years of autonomy from Spain and as part of its assertion of its own identity,
the name of the country is changed to Mexico. Mexican traders try to open up contact with Japan, but
are rebuffed.

1912 - San Francisco is renamed Aurilia. With it's newly implemented universal public health and
education systems in place some (both critics and supporters alike) take to referring to it as 'the
Popularist Republic of Aurilia'.

The Radical Party returns to power in England and introduces a policy of high public sector spending
(funded by borrowing and higher taxes). This appears to work in the short term.

1915 - An Abyssinian Empire is declared when the new state is able to consolidate a hegemony over
much of north-east Africa. An alliance is formed with the Marathian Confederation.

1917 - The Cirencester Massacre takes place in Virginia.

1918 - A very short and inconclusive bushfire war is fought between the Cree and Blackfoot Nations.
During the fighting the Blackfoot unsuccessfully try to deploy poison gas. When this is traced back to
commercial interests in Ohio a major diplomatic incident ensues.

1919 - An urban electric light railway commences operation in Barcelona. These spread throughout
Spain and then to other cities in the industrialised world over the coming years. Supporters claim that
this will finally make redundant the need for horse-drawn traffic in cities. However critics are quick to
point out that for some roles (e.g. personal transportation for the wealthy, some delivery vehicles etc)
the horse is and will remain essential.

Charles Washington loses in his bid to gain the leadership of the Land Party. He defects from the Party
and establishes the True England Party. This draws heavily on the support of disaffect former and
current soldiers. The party's perceived pro-monarchist sympathies prevent it from attaining widespread
popularity.

1920s - The wearing of wigs (by both men and women) comes into fashion. Initially they are usually
white but a trend for wearing brightly coloured ones quickly spreads.

1920 - The Mexican airship 'Empress Maria' makes the first transatlantic flight.

1922 - Finland rebels against Swedish rule. Despite putting up noble resistance the rebels are quickly
and brutally crushed. While much of the rest of the world is sympathetic to Finland's cause, no practical
assistance is forthcoming.

1924 - War breaks out again between the Cree and Blackfoot Nations over a territorial dispute.

1925 - The KGS purchases a dirigible from the OBC for use in its mapping expeditions. The dirigible is
christened the 'Chabot'.

Kanada and Mexico agree to defer a decision on the final disposition of 'New Vistula' for thirty years.
However, during this time geography dictates that Mexico has de facto control of the area.

The English economy goes into a steep decline again.

1927 - Noted English composer, Walter Kendrise completes Schilling's 'Unfinished Symphony' and
performs it for the first time in his home city of Calais.

The Monarchist Party is absorbed by the True England Party.

The Cree-Blackfoot War comes to an end with the help of Kanadian mediation.

1928 - The first heavier-than-air flight takes place in Spain. It is generally considered at the time to be
'no big deal'.

1929 - Scotland begins work on a 'supergun' project. This work is carried out at a secret base in the
Orkneys.

1930s - White squatter settlers begin to move into the Cree Nation in increasing numbers.

1931 - Fighting breaks out again between the Marathistanis and the Comanches. The Carolinian
government intervenes much faster this time and also takes advantage of a Mexican offer to provide
advisors with experience of fighting Apaches.

George Washington succeeds his father as leader of the True England Party.

1932 - The Carolinian militia uses poison gas (dropped from airships) against the warring factions in
Marathistan. While its practical effect is questionable, as a terror weapon it is very effective at bring the
war to a swift end.

1934 - Gold is discovered in New Mexico. It seems to many that the Mexicans have a 'Midas Touch'
and that wherever they go they discover gold. The Mexican flag is changed from red/white/blue to
red/gold/blue. 

1935 - A French Engineer in West Africa called Henri Gelée is appalled when a number of French 
soldiers in the area die when their route back to their base is cut off and despite being on the coast
ships are unable to reach them. Gelée becomes obsessed with the idea of how to land and pick up
troops from beaches and goes on to design (with the aid of Michelle Bonne) numerous landing-craft
designs. He also turns his attention to the problem of how to quickly create a harbour where there isn't
one already. He comes up with a design for an artificial harbour that becomes known as a Gelée
Bridge.

1936 - The excess of gold in the global economy triggers a global depression when traditional
Hamiltonian Economics prove unable to cope with the crisis. The effects of this are particularly hard in
England where the Army is once again forced to lay off large numbers of soldiers. Many of these have
no qualms about joining up with the TEP this time.

1937 - Squatter settlers in the Cree Nation stage a coup and size power, declaring the creation of a
'Republic of Manitoba'. Kanada sends in troops (mainly drawn from the militias of Appalacia, New
England and New Greenwich) to restore order. This is largely to prevent Ohio doing so first. While
relations between Kanada and Ohio are good, Ny Bergen has no desire to see its future route to the
Pacific cut off.

Numerous 'terrorist' attacks are reported in Wales. Several English cities see food riots.

Spain test-fires an 'aerial torpedo' from an airship. This first design is essentially an unguided missile but
research starts immediately on radio-guided devices. These weapons are invisaged as being used
primarily intended for use against other airships or against ground-based anti-airship
weapons.

1938 - Washington stages a coup and establishes martial law citing the deteriating situation in the
country. Both the Civil and Army Assemblies are suspended and the Radical Party is banned. Many
members of the Progressive Party are also imprisoned and the Land Party is purged of all surviving
enemies of Washington's father (or their children).

Washington orders that martial law be extended to England's overseas possessions at which point New
Greenwich refuses and declares its independence. Given that it is protected by Kanada, Washington
takes no steps to prevent this. Elements of the English Navy remaining loyal to the
civil government (which is most of them) flee to Port Filmore which also becomes de facto independent
for the duration of the crisis.

1939 - The Battle of Port Filmore. Washingtonian forces attack Port Filmore and are repulsed by
Loyalist forces there.

Washington crowns himself 'King George'. Any public demonstrations against this act are very brutally
put down. Wales rises in open rebellion and Washington commits the army to supressing it. Poison gas
is used against civilian 'targets' there.

Appalled at events in England and Wales, France, the Dutch Republic and Kanada all declare war on
Washington's illegal regime.

There are reports of a masked vigilante terrorising the criminal community of Ohio's capital. The
authorities dismiss the reports as being nothing more than an urban legend.

1940s - Electric bicycles (and rickshaw-type conveyances) make their appearance in urban areas,
finally taking the place of the horse.

1940 - Northumbria is voluntarily annexed by England. Scotland declares war and reveals the secret
weapon it had been working on. The linear-induction gauss guns (nicknamed 'Orkney Superguns')
prove devastatingly effective.

Cornwall joins Wales in rebellion, further stretching the resources of Washington's army.

The combined Loyalist and allied forces launch an amphibious assault on the south coast of England
(codenamed 'Sealion'). The extensive use of Gelée Bridges means that there is no need to capture a
port in the early stages of the invasion and this gives the Loyalists a massive tactical advantage. They
prove so effective that plans to use airships to resupply the troops (by means of newly formed Aerial
Supply Battalions) aren't put into action.

The world's first airship-airship battle takes place in the skies over London when the Loyalist 'Priam'
destroys the Washingtonian 'Hellfire'.

When the population of London rises against him and with his citadel at the Tower of London in flames,
Washington attempts to flee the city disguised as a women. Unfortunately for him, he just didn't have
the legs to get away with wearing a mini-skirt and he is quickly captured.

Much of London is destroyed when the fire from the Tower spreads (leading to false claims that
Washington had deliberately ordered the city destroyed).

In the aftermath of the civil war, the English Republic is restored although both Wales and Cornwall
seek and gain their independence (in 1940 and 1941 respectively). Following a speedy trial
Washington is hung, drawn and quartered for treason against the People and Republic.

Northumbria poses something of a dilemma for the victors. While it is felt to be in both England and
Scotland's interests to restore its pre-war status, dissatisfaction in the western part of the state [i.e.
Cumbria] at being governed from Newcastle is at an all time high. It is finally agreed to partition East
and West Northumbria with effect from 1942.

Manitoba is semi-annexed by Kanada as it becomes a full autonomous republic within the
Commonwealth. This is seen as a victory for a growing 'Greater Kanada' movement. Concerned by
what it sees as an increasingly expansionistic Kanada, the Blackfoot Nation responds by becoming
increasingly militant and expels all members of the KGS within its borders.

The Spanish successfully launch a an aircraft from an airship in flight. The following year sees the first
successful launch and recover. By the end of the decade many military airships have 'parasite' fighters
installed.

1943 - A Mexican aircraft, the 'Fuego' becomes the first heavier-than-air craft to fly across the Atlantic
(from Kanada to Scotland).

1944 - Scotland proposes the creation of a British Federation that would see Scotland being split into
its federal elements and being joined by Cornwall and Wales. While Cornwall votes in favour of joining
this 'Britain' in a plebiscite, it is rejected by Wales and the plan falls through.