Description of the Population
By 1650, the new administration in Lisbon had turned over the governance of Luanda and Benguela to the Viceroyalty of Nova Lusitânia along with the islands in the Gulf of Guinea (São Tomé, Fernão do Pó, Príncipe and Anobom), making the Cabo da Boa Esperança the administrative hub of an expansive empire. By 1650 the city was home to over 40,000 inhabitants and housed many impressive public buildings, some of which were replaced or rebuilt throughout the mid-17th century by grand Baroque structures.
In 1650, the European population had risen to around 770,000 with just around 5% having been born in Portugal (including the Azores and Madeira), most of colony's population growth being attributed to a high rate of natural growth common to frontier societies in temperate climate (as the English were beginning to witness in New England). However, the vast majority of "brancos" (whites) as they typically called lived along the southern coastal strip of the colony where they formed 80-90% of the population. On the planaltos (plateaus) they were around 60% of the population, whereas in the coastal sugar producing regions they were only around 10% of the total population. North of the Zambezi their numbers were even fewer, with perhaps only 5,000 living in that more inhospitable region.
The "brancos" stood at the top of the colonial hierarchy, however even this group was divided into new-Christians and old Christians. The new-Christians continued to face discrimination and were often excluded from public office and from the clergy. However, as in Brazil, this group constituted the much of the merchant class in the colony, with most of them being engaged in trade and others as artisans and skilled workers. Many have also settled in the frontier settlements to expand their trade to new regions, forging trading networks that act as bridges between the indigenous Africans and the Europeans.
Around 110,000 free people of colour were accounted for by 1650, many are classified as pardos or mestiços (persons of mixed race), however some were free indigenous Africans and others hail from the Estado da Índia. More often than not these were people with mixed European and African, and to a lesser extent Asian background (mostly in Quelimane). This group was responsible for exploring and attacking the frontier regions, often coming into conflict with the Jesuits. In the coastal captaincies of Luanda, Benguela, São Tomé, Quelimane, Sofala, Sena, Moçambique, Tete and Inhambane this group outnumbered the Europeans. Like new Christians they were excluded from municipal offices and membership in the more prestigious lay brotherhoods. Those not engaged in trading and the slave trade tended to live off of subsistence agriculture, or occupy the less prestigious occupations as artisans or working in manual labour. The most prestigious occupation for this group was to serve in the military or militia, with entire mulatto regiments being constituted.
At the bottom of the social pyramid were the over 200,000 slaves in 1650. In the sugar-producing regions they accounted for the majority of the population, especially in Sofala, Sena and Benguela. A skewed sex-ratio (70% were men) on the sugar plantations coupled with the harsh conditions led to their natural growth rate declining and their numbers having to be constantly replenished by new arrivals. On cattle ranches and the tobacco plantations of the Planalto do Norte their numbers tended to be less numerous, and their rates of survival higher. Slaves also accounted for the majority of the labour force engaged in mining. Furthest south, there were few slaves and around the Cabo da Boa Esperança only the wealthier families had slaves and they tended to number only 3-4 per household, usually working as servants.
Early in the history of the colony, most slaves were the Khoikhoi and San, however the few Khoikhoi and San that still remained lived much further north in remote regions. With the population growth in Tropical Africa largely stagnant during this period, entire regions are being depopulated by the Portuguese, the slave catchers are looking further north for captives and to Madagascar. To make matters worse, in many regions due to the enslavement of men, women outnumber men 2 and 3 to 1 in some societies, causing a great deal of turmoil. This coupled with the violent usurpation of their farming and grazing lands cause have caused many groups to migrate northwards to the Great Lakes Region, coming into conflict with the local populations already established there.
By 1650, the new administration in Lisbon had turned over the governance of Luanda and Benguela to the Viceroyalty of Nova Lusitânia along with the islands in the Gulf of Guinea (São Tomé, Fernão do Pó, Príncipe and Anobom), making the Cabo da Boa Esperança the administrative hub of an expansive empire. By 1650 the city was home to over 40,000 inhabitants and housed many impressive public buildings, some of which were replaced or rebuilt throughout the mid-17th century by grand Baroque structures.
In 1650, the European population had risen to around 770,000 with just around 5% having been born in Portugal (including the Azores and Madeira), most of colony's population growth being attributed to a high rate of natural growth common to frontier societies in temperate climate (as the English were beginning to witness in New England). However, the vast majority of "brancos" (whites) as they typically called lived along the southern coastal strip of the colony where they formed 80-90% of the population. On the planaltos (plateaus) they were around 60% of the population, whereas in the coastal sugar producing regions they were only around 10% of the total population. North of the Zambezi their numbers were even fewer, with perhaps only 5,000 living in that more inhospitable region.
The "brancos" stood at the top of the colonial hierarchy, however even this group was divided into new-Christians and old Christians. The new-Christians continued to face discrimination and were often excluded from public office and from the clergy. However, as in Brazil, this group constituted the much of the merchant class in the colony, with most of them being engaged in trade and others as artisans and skilled workers. Many have also settled in the frontier settlements to expand their trade to new regions, forging trading networks that act as bridges between the indigenous Africans and the Europeans.
Around 110,000 free people of colour were accounted for by 1650, many are classified as pardos or mestiços (persons of mixed race), however some were free indigenous Africans and others hail from the Estado da Índia. More often than not these were people with mixed European and African, and to a lesser extent Asian background (mostly in Quelimane). This group was responsible for exploring and attacking the frontier regions, often coming into conflict with the Jesuits. In the coastal captaincies of Luanda, Benguela, São Tomé, Quelimane, Sofala, Sena, Moçambique, Tete and Inhambane this group outnumbered the Europeans. Like new Christians they were excluded from municipal offices and membership in the more prestigious lay brotherhoods. Those not engaged in trading and the slave trade tended to live off of subsistence agriculture, or occupy the less prestigious occupations as artisans or working in manual labour. The most prestigious occupation for this group was to serve in the military or militia, with entire mulatto regiments being constituted.
At the bottom of the social pyramid were the over 200,000 slaves in 1650. In the sugar-producing regions they accounted for the majority of the population, especially in Sofala, Sena and Benguela. A skewed sex-ratio (70% were men) on the sugar plantations coupled with the harsh conditions led to their natural growth rate declining and their numbers having to be constantly replenished by new arrivals. On cattle ranches and the tobacco plantations of the Planalto do Norte their numbers tended to be less numerous, and their rates of survival higher. Slaves also accounted for the majority of the labour force engaged in mining. Furthest south, there were few slaves and around the Cabo da Boa Esperança only the wealthier families had slaves and they tended to number only 3-4 per household, usually working as servants.
Early in the history of the colony, most slaves were the Khoikhoi and San, however the few Khoikhoi and San that still remained lived much further north in remote regions. With the population growth in Tropical Africa largely stagnant during this period, entire regions are being depopulated by the Portuguese, the slave catchers are looking further north for captives and to Madagascar. To make matters worse, in many regions due to the enslavement of men, women outnumber men 2 and 3 to 1 in some societies, causing a great deal of turmoil. This coupled with the violent usurpation of their farming and grazing lands cause have caused many groups to migrate northwards to the Great Lakes Region, coming into conflict with the local populations already established there.
