Apollinis et Dianae: A Story of Power, Magnificence and Glory

The year 1666 opens promisingly for Europe. In the Kingdom of England,the leading nation of the British Isles, last years outbreak of Plague in London,which had decimated the population, had started to die down, much to the joy of the Government and citizens of the city. The Second Dutch war, began in the previous year, had started off with a great victory at the Battle of Lowestoft, in which 17 Dutch ships were lost. Though it remains to be seen who will win the war, the Nation is full of hope for a victory over its commercial rival.

The year 1666 opens promisingly for Europe. In the Kingdom of England,the leading nation of the British Isles, last years outbreak of Plague in London,which had decimated the population, had started to die down, much to the joy of the Government and citizens of the city. The Second Dutch war, began in the previous year, had started off with a great victory at the Battle of Lowestoft, in which 17 Dutch ships were lost. Though it remains to be seen who will win the war, the Nation is full of hope for a victory over its commercial rival.

Across the North Sea, the United Provinces of the Netherlands are also gearing up for war. Led by Grand Pensiony Johan de Witt, the Netherlands is one of the most powerful states in Europe, dominating the bulk of trade with India, China, Japan and the East Indies. But for all their strength the Dutch are beset with problems. Their fleet was heavily damaged by the English at the battle of Lowestoft, though with the safe return of the Spice Fleet the Dutch have the money to quickly replace those lost ships. The main problem is an internal one, a tug of war over who should run the State. Until 1650 the Republic was lead by Stadtholders, with the position almost always held by the Princes of Orange of the House of Orange-Nassau. However, in 1650 the Stadtholder, William II of Orange, died, leaving the office vacant (though a branch of the Oranges continued to hold the Stadtholdeate of the provinces of Friesland and Groningen) and heirless (his son was born William III of Orange was born a few days later). Thus the House of Orange and their Orangist party lost power to the States-party, now led by the Grand Pensionary. The dispute has continued for almost 16 years, but now, with William III soon to turn 16 and the war with England and Charles II, who happens to be the young Prince's uncle, the domination of the States party might soon be at an end.

Across the English Channel, in France, King Louis XIV has begun preparations for an invasion of the Spanish Netherlands, claimed on behalf of his wife, Infanta Maria Theresa of Spain, oldest daughter of the late King Felipe IV. King Charles of England's sister, Henriette-Anne Duchesse d'Orleans (called Madame at the French Court), married to King Louis' only brother Philippe Duc d'Orleans (called Monsieur at the French Court) , tries to convince her brother-in-law to end his alliance with the Dutch and support her brother in his war. But the King's plans for the Spanish Netherlands relies on keeping the Dutch happy. Though in possession of one of the largest of armies and ruler of the arguably most powerful state in Europe, Louis is not eager to risk the Dutch intervening against him. However, if the English were to successfully defeat the Dutch Fleet, then King Louis' mind might be changed.

For Spain, 1666 begins much less promisingly.On September 17 of the previous year King Felipe IV died, leaving the throne to his only surviving son, who became King Carlos II. Carlos was a depressing figure. Physically and mentally retarded an deformed, barely able to speak, unable to walk, the 4 year old King was the only male left for the Spanish Branch of the House of Habsburg. Under the ineffectual Queen Regent Marianna, Spain is currently engaged in a war against Portugal, formerly in a personal union with Spain but now fighting to regain its independence under the Braganza Dynasty.

In Portugal, King Alfonso VI is proving as ineffective as Spain's Carlos II. Paralyzed on the left side of his body and mentally unstable thanks to a childhood illness, Portugal's affairs had been managed by Alfonso's mother, Queen Mother Luisa de Guzmán, until 1662. Under her Regency, Portugal had secured an alliance with England, via marriage between Alfonso's sister Infanta Catherine of Portugal ( known as Catherine of Braganza) and newly restored King Charles II. Sadly for Portugal, Dom Luís de Vasconcelos e Sousa, 3rd Count of Castelo Melhor, convinced Alfonso that the Queen Regent wanted to steal the throne, with the end result being Luisa being dismissed from power and sent to a convent. Castelo Melhor now rules as Secretary of State and effective Prime Minister, and is currently negotiating with France for a French bride for Alfonso. His power seems absolute, though there are whispers that Infante D. Pedro, the younger brother of King Alfonso and heir to the throne, is planning to put an end to Castelo Melhor's rule.

Across from the Iberian peninsula, Italy lies in an unprecedented era of Peace and prosperity. The Italian Peninsula had been decimated in the previous century, in a series of wars between France and Spain known as the Italian Wars, though has thankfully managed to avoid becoming another battlefield this century. Ruled by a mixture of duchies, merchant republics the Papacy and, in the North and South Spain, Italy is currently in the grip of an artistic and architectural style known as Baroque, which has spread throughout Europe. It remains to be seen if Italy will remain peaceful or if the Dark clouds of war will once again descend on this center of art and culture.

To the North of Italy lies the conglomerate of states known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation ruled by Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I. The HRE has just begun to recover from the devastation inflicted on it by the thirty years war, in which Germany was the battlefield of nearly all European nations. Sadly the peace of Westphalia, which ended the thirty years war, also helped to almost completely annihilate the Central power of the Empire, with each of the nominal vassal states gaining almost complete sovereignty and control over Foreign policy. The Empire exists in name only, a dying flame. But like the Phoenix, the Empire has the potential to rise again.

Bordering the rotting Holy Roman Empire are the personal territories of the Holy Roman Emperor, known collectively as the Habsburg Monarchy. A mixture of the Kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, the Archduchy of Austria, and various other Hereditary lands, they are the source of power for the Empire's legal Sovereign, Leopold I. Leopold, the last male of the Imperial Branch of the House of Habsburg, is the brother of Spains Queen Regent Marianna and uncle to her children, King Carlos II and Infanta Margaret Theresa. The potential heir to the vast Spanish Empire, he is currently engaged in the last stage of negotiations to marry his niece, Margaret Theresa.

To the far North of Europe lies the Kingdom of Denmark. Ruled by King Frederick III, Denmark is currently recovered from a series of devastating defeats at the hands of Sweden, only being saved from further humiliation with the death of the Swedish King Karl X.However, this is also a time of great change, for in 1660 King Frederick successfully played the Danish Estates against one another to change Denmark from an elective Monarchy to an hereditary absolute one. It remains to be seen if Denmark's new absolutism will remain intact, and if Denmark will be able to fully recover and possibly regain its former position as a preeminent power in the North.

The leading power in the Baltic and Scandinavia, Sweden is a true power on the rise. Having benefited greatly from the Thirty years war, Sweden went on to win a series of victories over its neighbors under King Karl X. Sadly for Sweden, and thankfully for her neighbors, Karl X died from pneumonia in 1660, leaving his throne to his only child, four year old King Karl XI. Currently under the regency of his mother, Queen Regent Hedvig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp, it remains to be seen if Karl XI inherited the military greatness of his father.

And finally, across the Baltic from Sweden lies the Polish -Lithuanian Commonwealth. Once one of the most powerful nations in Europe, the Commonwealth is now plagued by internal and external problems. The Commonwealth is currently recovering from a massive war known as the Deluge, which was essentially a free for all war between Poland and Sweden, with all of the neighboring nations joining in on one side or another. Sadly for the Polish, however, not all the nations of the Deluge have made peace. The Tsardom of Russia, a rising power, is still at war with the Commonwealth, though they have been engaged in off and on peace negotiations sense 1664. The Polish King Jan II Kazimierz has been trying to reform the Commonwealths government, hoping to give more power to the Throne and re-centralize his Nation. he is opposed by the Commonwealths leading nobles, who have no desire to give up their power. It remains to be seen if the King will be successful in his efforts or if they are doomed to failure.

However, for all the shifting and unsoundness of the European nations, the news circulating to all the Courts in that January is news from Oxford, where the English Court has moved to escape the plague gripping London. Over the Christmas Season of 1665 a formal announcement was made, though sense most of the Court had been speculating on the subject since October it was more of a confirmation. Queen Catherine of Braganza was pregnant.

The news that Queen Catherine is pregnant is greeted with great enthusiasm across the three Kingdoms, but none are more satisfied then her Husband, King Charles II. For him this pregnancy represents the end of what much have felt like a dream.

Born on May 29th 1630, to King Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria of France, Charles was their oldest surviving child. Charles' childhood coincided with what is known as both the 11 years tyranny and the Personal Rule, in which his father Charles I ruled without Parliament. Charles childhood, to be shared with his siblings Princess Mary, Prince James Duke of York, and Princess Elizabeth, was one out of a fairy tail. Doted on by his parents, the young heir to the throne grew up among the sons of the flower of the aristocracy.This idyllic existence, along with Charles' childhood, came to an abrupt end with the beginning of the Bishops wars in 1638, a period of conflict between England and Scotland. Sadly this was merely the beginning of what would be known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, a series of conflicts that changed the face of three nations forever.

Charles personally fought in the battle of Edgehill in 1642, one of the opening battles of the English civil war and for the next four years would accompany his father in his attempts to win the civil war, which would ultimately end in failure for the Royalists. Having fled to France, where his mother and her French relatives awaited, Charles could only act as a spectator for the next three years, during which his father lost the civil war, encourage a second one and ultimately pay for his actions with his life.

After King Charles I's execution on January 30th, 1649, Charles would try to win back his throne with the help of the Scots, but hopes would be dashed with defeat at the hands of Oliver Cromwell at the battle of Worcester on September 3 1651. After a daring escape from England, Charles would spend the next nine years in exile on the continent until his recall from exile in 1660.

During the 1660's Charles seemed to it all. The throne of his family, the adoration of his people, even children by his mistresses. The only thing missing was an heir to the next generation, and now, with Catherine's pregnancy, the missing piece slides into place.

The only other person in England who could be as happy as the King for the Queen's pregnancy is Charles' Lord Chancellor and de facto Chief Minister, Sir Edward Hyde Earl of Clarendon. The architect of the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance and the King's marriage to Infanta Catherine of Braganza, Clarendon would be the man to blame if Catherine failed to produce children. By late 1665 rumors had began to spread, no doubt spurred on by Clarendon's enemy Barbara Countess of Castlemaine, the King's principle mistress, that Clarendon had purposefully married Charles to a barren wife. This was because of the unfortunate marriage of Clarendon's daughter Anne to the King's only surviving brother and heir James Duke of York in 1660. A relationship had developed between Anne and York, one that ended in Anne's pregnancy. James in a shocking act of support, married her, thus creating the possibility of one of Clarendon's grandchildren sitting on the throne.

As Catherine's Pregnancy progressed, Courtiers began to talk. The Queen seemed to be bigger than most women would be at this stage in the pregnancy, though this could be because of her small stature (the Queen wasn't called the little Catholic Queen for nothing). In any case, aside from gossiping Courtiers, most of the attention wasn't on the Queen but rather the Dutch war.

The Second Anglo-Dutch war, as it became known, had started out well, with a great victory at the battle of Lowestoft. Sadly for England, the plan to capture the Dutch Spice fleet in the neutral Norwegian port of Bergan failed, mainly due to the delay of orders on the part of the King of Denmark and Norway. Thus this rich fleet managed to return to the Netherlands. With the fleet's return,the Dutch were able to afford a massive naval buildup over the rest of 1665. Compounding the threat of a resurgent Dutch fleet was the problem of who was to lead the Royal Navy.

The titular commander was the King's brother, Lord High Admiral James Duke of York & Albany. The Duke had led the English to victory at Lowestoft, but was almost killed several times during the battle. Because of this, King Charles, unwilling to risk the life of his heir, had ordered York to remain on shore, leaving command of the Fleet to their cousin Prince Rupert of the Palatinate Duke of Cumberland and General George Monck, Duke of Albemarle. Now, with Queen Catherine's pregnancy progressing, the possibility of York returning to personal command of the fleet is raised, though the decision is postponed until the Queen gives birth.

In February suspiring news reached the Court, now at Hampton Court, from Paris. The Queen Mother, Henrietta Maria, was preparing to return to England to be on hand for the birth of the Queen's child. Henrietta Maria had originally returned to England in 1662 and planned to spend the rest of her days in her adopted homeland. However, the Queen Mother had begun to suffer from bronchitis, which she had blamed on the damp English weather. Thus she had returned to France the previous year. The news of the Queen Mother's pending return, though welcome to her sons and daughter-in-law, is awkward diplomatically, considering that France had recently joined the conflict between England and the Netherlands on the Dutch side. In preparation for the Queen Mother's arrival, the Court moves to Dover Castle. The Queen Mother's landing on February 23, was a joyous occasion for the King and indeed the whole Court.



Sadly February would end on a sad note, as Queen Catherine's mother, Luisa de Guzman Queen Mother & sometime Regent of Portugal, died on the 27th. The news would reach England in mid March, by which time the bulk of the Court and Government had returned to London, with the notable exceptions of the Queen and Queen Mother, along with most of their respective Households. The Two Queens remained at Hampton Court, a particular favorite residence for Queen Catherine. When the news reached England King Charles, in a show of compassion, insisted on traveling to Hampton Court to inform the Queen personally. The Queen is devastated by the news and collapses, which is to be expected from a woman who was so close to her mother. The King is alarmed, fearing that Catherine could miscarry or go into early labor. Thankfully the fears are premature, though the Queen would not fully recover from her mother's death for some months.

By the beginning of April the plague has all but died out in London, though a few isolated cases are still reported. With the plague having disappeared the Queens finally feel safe enough to return to London, doing so on April 2. Queen Catherine moves into St. James's to prepare for her confinement, at the recommendation of the Queen Mother, while Henrietta Maria moves back into her former residence, Somerset House.

On April 20th the news the King and Court had be waiting for arrives, the Queen is in labor. The news arrives as King Charles is meeting with his Privy council over Naval preparations. The King dismissed the Council with a quip that was typical of him "Gentlemen I must go to greet my successor. Let us hope he doesn't take to long to arrive". Then, King and Council departed for St. James's, where other members of the Royal Family and Court are gathering to await the Royal Birth.

The Queen's labor, unfortunately for Charles, lasted well into the night and early morning. Finally, at 9 'clock on the morning of April 21st 1666, the Queen gave birth to a baby boy, automatically Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay. Surprisingly to nearly all present, the Queen's labor continued and minutes later gave birth to a second child, a girl. The Queen of England had, for the first time in the history of the Nation, gave birth to Twins.

The Birth of Royal Twins sends London into a frenzy of celebration. Bonfires are lit across the city, fireworks are set of by the various corporations, wine is flowing in the streets and the various members of the Nobility, led by the King and Duke of York, head to St. Pauls for a Service of Thanksgiving. The Duchess of Buckingham, appointed Governess to the Children, works to create a duel establishment for the Royal twins, as requested by the King and Queen. The celebrations rival those of the King's restoration six years ago. More then being yet another Royal Birth (the Duke of York already had three surviving children) the birth of the Kings legitimate heirs represent assured stability and hope for the future.

The christening of the Royal twins took place on May 17th, at the Chapel Royal in Whitehall. The entire ceremony was a bit of a new creation, with precedence having to be created for the new heirs. Several ideas were considered, including separate christenings , but it was ultimately decided to hold a joint christening. The Prince was carried in by the Duchess of Orsmonde and the Princess by her half sister-in-law the Duchess of Monmouth. The children's Godparents, King Louis XIV of France, Queen Mother Henrietta Maria and James Duke of York for the Prince and King Alfonso VI of Portugal, Princess Henriette-Anne Duchesse d'Orleans and Prince Rupert of the Palatinate for the Princess, did cause some controversy as so many were Catholic. Though the Queen Mother, York and Prince Rupert were physically present the Kings of France and Portugal and Madame, had to be represented by various members of the Nobility. The Duke of Buckingham and Viscount Cornbury represented Kings Louis and Alfonso, receptively, and the Duchess of Hamilton represented her distant cousin Madame. Humphrey Henchman Bishop of London formally christened the children by dripping water over the children's heads from a great golden basin, naming the children Charles and Katherine-Henriette.

Meanwhile the King, always want of money, is quick to take advantage of the celebratory atmosphere in the Country by requesting Parliament increase his already large income from £ 1.2 million to £1.5 million, to support the King's new and future legitimate heirs. To the surprise of both Charles and his ministers, Parliament actually agrees. Thus the new heirs are already paying off and they aren't even three months old!

The weeks following the Royal birth is summed up best by diarist Samuel Pepys "With all the parties and celebrations throwout this isle of Great Britain it is almost enough to make one forget the War entirely!" Nearly everyone but the King and his Government. While everyone else has been celebrating, the Admiralty and Government have continued Naval preparations. The Duke of York, no longer heir presumptive, is allowed to return to Personal command of the Fleet, once again sharing this position with Prince Rupert. Monck is moved back into the Admiralty, never return to the battlefield again.

By the middle of May rumors have reached London that the French and Dutch fleets are preparing to join forces at Dunkirk. King Louis, having joined the war in late January, was apparently not appeased by being made godfather to Prince Charles. To the English, the joining of the is their two enemies is the ultimate fear, as the combined Fleets would outnumber the Royal Navy. Therefore the goal of the Royal Navy is to intercept the Dutch Fleet before it can join the with the French. Though General Monck had wanted to divide the Fleet, or at least send a squadron to block the Strait of Dover against the French, York overruled him and on May 27th a Fleet of 80 ships left port to intercept the Dutch.



On June 1st the English under York and Prince Rupert engaged the Dutch fleet, led by naval hero Admiral Michiel de Ruyter, near Dunkirk. The resulting battle was the largest in both the Second Dutch war and the entire age of Sail. Called the Four Days' Battle after its length, it was a resounding victory for the English. 21 Dutch vessels, including Admiral de Ruyter's flagship the De Zeven Provinciën, were lost, making the Four days' battle an even larger victory than Lowestoft. Even worse than losing nearly a fourth of their ships, Admiral de Ruyter was killed when his flagship was sank, thus leaving the Dutch effectively leaderless.

Under Lieutenant-Admiral Cornelis Trump, the Dutch manage to retreat to the Port of Amsterdam in a state of shock. Their hero and leader is dead and a fourth of their Fleet is sank. Meanwhile, in England, the news of their Fleets victory is greeted enthusiastically. By the King's order bonfires are lit across the country, balls are thrown by the various nobles in honor of the victory, Bells ring across London and a te deum is even sang in the Queen Catherine's private chapel. It says something to the feelings of euporia in London that there are no objections to the Queen's actions.

The Government discussions in The Hague that June are full of worry and distress. The nations premier Naval Commander is dead, the fleet smashed, the people are whispering loudly,spurred on by the Orangists, that this never have happened if William of Orange was Stadtholder. After all, the Prince of Orange is the nephew of the King, so what reason would he have to declare war on a relative? Dangerous talk indeed. To try and deflect the defeat, de Witt orders the Fleet, still under the command of Admiral Trump, to launch an attack on the English. By the time the Fleet is prepared to battle again, its already mid-July.



The resulting engagement, fought on July 25th, is known as the St. James's Day battle in England and the Two Day's battle in the Netherlands. The Battle is a Pyrrhic victory for the Dutch. Though they manage to sink 7 English ships, and capture 2 more, the casualties the Dutch suffer are enormous. Over 2,000 sailors are lost in the battle, with 13 ships needed large scale repairs.

Sadly for the Dutch, the English vengeance for this victory is horrendous and devastating for Dutch trade. On the 9th and 10th of August an English squadron under Admiral Robert Holmes conducted a raid near the Dutch town of ter Schelling, capturing nearly 20 merchant ships and sinking 130 more. From a trading point of view it was only slightly damaging, as 150 merchant ships represented but a fraction of the total Dutch Merchant fleet. But from a physiological view, it both horrified the Dutch and strengthened their resolve, as the entire town of ter Schelling was accidentally burned. The initial dismay was replaced by a dogged determination to continue the war and repair the damage done. This accidental destruction of a town and its inhabitants could have been the event that rallied the Dutch people to bring the war to the English, if not for a devastating assault on Amsterdam.

The attacker was not the English but something much worse. An enemy that had no mercy, and attacked all: young and old, rich and poor, powerful and weak. This enemy was the bubonic plague. This was not the first time the city had been visited by this devastating epidemic. In 1663-1664 Amsterdam had lost over 50,000 people to the disease. In fact it is believed that the Great Plague of London had been accidentally imported from the Netherlands. However, this time the plague didn't just decimate the City, it also decimated the Fleet.

No one is certain how the plague reached ships of the Dutch Fleet docked in Amsterdam, but it is believed that it was spread by the dock workers repairing the damages from the St. James's day battle. From there, it rapidly moved throwout the Fleet, with the final death tole at around 7,000 for the Navy and 35,000 for the city.

The only light in this dark time is that the English can't take advantage of the situation, for they are suffering from their own internal crisis. On September 2nd a fire broke out in London, which quickly spread through the city. The firefighting efforts, led by the King and Duke of York, is ultimately successful in containing and stopping the flames by the September 5th, but the damage was already done. Much of the heart of London had been gutted by the fire, including the magnificent St. Paul's Cathedral, just so recently the site of celebrations for the birth of the Royal heirs.


Almost as soon as the flames died out rumors begin to spread that the fire was set deliberately. Many blame the Catholics but soon thousands of broadsheets appear across London (written by Government propagandists), laying the blame at the feet of the Dutch, as revenge for the defeat of their fleet and the accidental burning of ter Schelling. The Government is all too happy to encourage such rumors, as it increases the popularity of the Dutch war. With public opinion aflame, Parliament votes £ 250,000 to the King for the refit and expansion of the Navy. There is even talk of an invasion of the Netherlands itself, though with the outbreak of plague the discussions are tabled for the time being. Though some, such as Prince Rupert, want to try to take advantage of the Plague and attack,the idea is overruled. Many believe it would be in bad taste to attack the Dutch while the Capital is ruined, so for the rest of the year there would be no battles between the Dutch and English fleets.

By December, as the eventful finally year draws to a close, a time of reflection sets in. For the Dutch, 1666 is the Rampjaar, a year of disaster. Their hero dead, their fleet crushed, their trade interrupted, and a major city gripped by the plague. All the dutch, and the Grand Pensionary in particular, can do is pray that the next year is better. For the English, on the other hand, 1666 is considered a good year. In spite of the Great Fire of London, things are good for the English. The plague has disappeared, the King has twin heirs, the Navy is victorious and the Government is more popular than ever. Plans are being drawn up to rebuild London, grander and more magnificent than ever before. For the English, 1667 looks to be bright indeed.